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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 

Chap...^..r Copyright No. 



Shelf. 



M^ 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 






'0 

jul 8 um 






SUGAR BEET SEED 

A Work for FARMERS, SEEDSMEN 
and CHEMISTS, Containing Histor- 
ical, Botanical and Theoretical Data, 
Combined with Practical Directions 
for the Production of Superior Sugar 
Beet Seed. 

By LEWIS S. WARE, M. E., 

Editor of "The Sugar Beet," Author of "The 
Sugar Beet," "Various Sources of Sugar, 
"Production, Requirements and Selection 
of Sugar Beet Seed;" Member of the 
American Philosophical Society, Fellow of 
L'Ecole Centrale des Arts, Agriculture et 
Manufactures, Association des Chimistes 
Paris, etc. 

Profusely Illustrated. 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 
Chicago New York Springfield 




9 a 



WOCOF 



9313 



[Copyright, 1898 ] 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 

[All rights reserved ] 



4 



X 



s 



PUBLISHER'S NOTE. 

This book has long been in preparation, and the manu- 
script was in the publisher's hands for some months before 
it was printed. The work embodies not only the results of 
20 years' studies and experience with the subject, but in its 
preparation the author has visited nearly every beet-seed 
farm and similar institution in the world. The illustrations 
are mostly from wood engravings originally made for 
this work. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I Pages 1 to 6 

Historical Considerations and Origin of European Vari- 
eties of Beets — Concluding Remarks. 

CHAPTER II Pages 7 to 25 

Botanical Considerations Respecting Sugar-Beet Seed — 
Historical Facts Relating to the Fertilization of Plants- 
Description of the Flower— Fertilization — Examination of 
Beet Seed— Enlarged Microscopical Section of the Entire 
Seed— Maturity— Physiological Functions of the Embryo 
and Albumen. 

CHAPTER III Pages 26 to 43 

Requirements of Sugar-Beet Seed — Preliminary Remarks 
—Advantage of One Variety of Beets— Advantage of 
Early Selection — Annual Beets. 

CHAPTER IV Pages 44 to 52 

Races, Types and Varieties of Sugar Beets— Preliminary 
Remarks — Technical Considerations. 

CHAPTER V Pages 52 to 121 

Selection of Beets with a View to Seed Production. 

Part I. — Preliminary Observations. Legras's Physical 
Selection of Mothers, with Discussion as to Advantage 
of Small Beets— Exterior Signs as Indication of Quality. 
Selection by Appearance of Leaves. 

Part II. Chemical Selection— History of Chemical Selec- 
tion— 1st. Density of the Entire Root; 2d, Density 
of a Piece of Beet; 3d, Density of the Juice of 
the Beet; 4th, Estimation of the Juice by Chem- 
ical Methods; 5th, Estimation of the Sugar Beet by 
Means of a Polariscope. (a), Alcohol Method; (b), Hot 
Water Method; (c), Cold Water Methods, Pellet and 
Lamot Rasp; (c) 2, Keil and Dolle Rasp with Subsequent 
Weighing of Pulps; 3, Without Weighing with Special 
Samples as Adopted by M. Legras; 4, Sach's Direct 
Method— General Remarks on Laboratory Requisites for 
Selection of Mothers by Cold-Water Method— German 
Beet-Seed-Selecting Laboratory— Polariscope for Mother 
Selection. 

iv 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. V 

CHAPTER VI Pages 122 to 152 

Agricultural Soils for Beet-Seed Production — Fertilizers 
for Elite Seed and Mothers — Sowing of Seed for Mothers 
— Preparing the Soil, Planting of Mothers and Care Dur- 
ing Development — Relation Between Soils and Fertili- 
zers — Harvesting — Silos for Mothers — Chemical Changes 
During Second Year's Growth. 

CHAPTER VII Pages 153 to 169 

Selection and Sampling Seed — Preliminary Remarks — 
Influence of the Size of Seed on the Quality of the Root — 
Actual Weight of Beet Seed — Selection of Seed. 

CHAPTER VIII Pages 170 to 183 

Germination Test— Preliminary Remarks — Germinators, 
Methods and Mistakes. 

CHAPTER IX Pages 184 to 207 

Sowing of Seed— Preparing Seed Before Sowing— Beet 
seed Sowing — Germination in Soil. 

CHAPTER X Pages 208 to 220 

Special Methods of Production of Superior Seed — From 
Leaves, Buds, Small Beets. 

CHAPTER XI Pages 221 to 236 

Home-Grown Beet — American Experiments in Beet-Seed 
Production — Utah Beet-Seed Production — Saxon Methods 
for Field Testing of Beet Seed. 

CHAPTER XII Pages 237 to 246 

Beet-Seed Production in France — Conditions of Beet Seed 
Purchase in Different Countries — Old Seed Utilization. 

APPENDIX Pages 247 to 264 

Notes, Names and Addresses of the Leading French, 
German, Austrian and Russian Sugar-Beet-Seed Pro- 
ducers. List of Illustrations. Index. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



FTG. 



o. 

4. 

4. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
II >. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
IS. 
ID. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
2?. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 



28. 
29. 



Appearance of seed and leaves on stalk 
Outward appearance of three-seed cluster 
Perspective view of flower from top 
Section of flower showing embryo and stigma 
Plan or diagram of flower .... 

Pollen 

Section of pollen 

Flowers at various stages of maturity 
Stamens (detail of anthers) 
Section of flower through pistil 
Section of nucleus ...... 

Seed development 

Enlarged microscopical section of beet seed 
Section of pericarp of seed .... 
Seed taken from hard outer covering 

Section of seed 

Appearance of testa magnified . 

Section M. N 

Starch cell 

Seed with descending root 
Tip end of root showing plant cells 
Legras beet with stalks and seed . 
Matured seed with dried petals on stalk 
Typical Legras sugar beet 



Shape of beets geometrically shown 



Shape of beets .... 
Slassy's method of taking sample 

Sampling 

Diagram of Violette's theory 



PAGE 



9 
10 
10 
10 
10 
11 
11 
12 
12 
12 
13 
14 
14 
15 
15 
16 
16 
19 
19 
20 
22 
55 
64 
65 
66 
67 
79 
79 
79 



VI 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Vll 

PIG. PAGE 

30. Heating- flask revolving machine 81 

31. Pipette stand 82 

32. Diagram of theory Pellet and Lamont rasp . . 87 

33. Pellet and Lamont beet rasp ' 88 

34. Detail of rasp point 92 

35. Wide neck flask 92 

36. Plan of beet selecting laboratory 95 

37. Vertical sampler 97 

38. Hanriot crusher for beet sample 100 

39. Filtering table 101 

40. Complete apparatus 106 

41. Detail of pipette 107 

42. Interior view Braune beet selecting laboratory . 114 

43. Continuous tube for polariscope .... 118 

44. Polariscope with continuous tube .... 120 

45. Plan of field, showing position of mothers . . 133 

46. Mother with top and end removed . . . 136 

47. Sickle cutting of stalks with seed at Besny . . 139 

48. Stacking bundles of stalks with seed at Besny 141 

49. Construction of silo for beets selected for seed . 148 

50. Maercker sampler 168 

51. Top view Maercker sampler 168 

52. Divider paper 169 

53. Dreuer marker 176 

54. Arrangement of seed 178 

55. Germinator 180 

56-59. Methods of planting 194 

60-61. Growth of planted seed 203 

62-63. Two germs on same seed sprouted different days 205 

64-66. Growth of seed leaves 206 

67. Leaves with adhering skin 218 

68. Pinal appearance of root 218 

69. Root formed from leaf with skin .... 219 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 



CHAPTER I. 

Historical Consideration and Origin of European 
Varieties of Beets. 

The name Beta has a Celtic origin, and is shown 
to have existed several centuries before Christ. It was 
then evidently a sort of mangold. Just whether it comes 
from a wild variety, existing in Southern Europe, 
and to which is given the name Beta Maritima, 
no one can decide. A fact of importance is, as pointed 
out by Schindler, that the flower of the existing sugar 
beet has many points in common with its early ances- 
tor whose descendants are in existence to-day.* The 
pollen grains are, however, smaller, and the wild beet 
hasmanymore lateral roots than the ameliorated types. 
French writers claim that the beet crossed the Alps 
from Italy. Oliver Serres mentions beets as early 
as 1590. 

Beets were planted everywhere in Europe after 
the appearance of Marggrafs pamphlet in 1747. The 
white and rose varieties were then mentioned. The 
most important of all these experiments were those 



*It is interesting to compare the early or wild beet with existing 
improved varieties: 



Potassa 

Soda 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Chlorine 

Sulphuric acid... 
Phosphoric acid. 
Silicic acid 



Wild Beet. 


Existing Sugar 


(Wray) 


Beet. 


30.1 


35.3 


34.2 


7.0 


3.1 


7.0 


3.2 


4.G 


18.5 


3.8 


3.8 


2.2 


3.5 


9.3 


3.0 


7.0 



1 



2 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

of Vilmorin in I//5, in Russia during 1800, and sub- 
sequently. Experiments under Conrad Adam were 
carried on in Vienna in 1799. F. C. Archard, in 1786, 
at his farm, experimented with not less than twenty- 
two varieties of beets ; and, as a result of these observa- 
tions, his book on the manufacture of beet sugar was 
issued. Other authorities declare that it was brought 
to Germany from Holland. In Austria it was certainly 
known during the last century. To follow the 
sugar beet through the various stages of its history 
is almost an impossibility; but it was not until the 18th 
century that a standard name was applied to this root; 
its use at that period was almost entirely for feed- 
ing purposes. 

Beet seed sold in 1837 for 25 to 75 cents per pound. 
The early Vilmorin selection in France assumed a seri- 
ous aspect in 1830; a few years after this, Ziemann of 
Quedlinburg, Saxony, followed the example of the 
French. The Vilmorin method, based upon apparent 
sugar percentages of pieces of beet in saline solutions, 
was improved upon by the use of the polariscope for 
exact sugar determinations.. However, the real impe- 
tus given to the whole question of amelioration of the 
saccharine quality of sugar beets was largely due to 
the Prussian fiscal laws. In Germany for many years 
they did not hesitate to declare that the Vilmorin seed 
was the best, and Professor Maercker placed it beyond 
all others. This is made evident, for even as late as 
1877 the Vilmorin Original sold for about 35 cents 
per pound while the Quedlinburg was worth about 
6J cents.* The Klein-Wanzleben, however, stood next 



•According to the ''Deutsche Znekerindiistrie," the prices of beet 
seed on the German market in 1877 were : 

Vilmorin Original, 50 legs 140 marks 

Vilmorin Amelioree, 50 kcs 28-36 marks 

Klein-Wanzleben, 50 kgs. 90 marks 

Electoi'al Knanev 48 marks 

Imperial Knaner 40-42 marks 

Qnedlinbura: Original 21-27 murks 

Commercial 18-20 marks 



EUROPEAN VARIETIES OF BEETS. .» 

to the Vilmorin, but that variety brought freely only 
22 cents per pound. 

However, beets of those days were so different 
from the kind now used for sugar-making that they 
need no more than a passing notice. Knauer, with 
some authority, maintains that all existing varieties of 
sugar beets have five important starting points: ist, 
Belgian; 2d, Oucdlinburg; 3d, Silesian; 4th, Siberian, 
and 5th, the Imperial beet. Hundreds of varieties 
differ, not only in shape, but in the size and form of 
their leaves, which, also, are so many characteristics, 
to which must be added sub-varieties with varied col- 
ored skins, necks, etc. At the present time those who 
have centred their efforts on one variety, like M. 
Legras, have created a type that would be recognized 
anywhere; also the German, Klein-Wanzleben, which 
has undergone certain changes, but still retains its 
original characteristics. The type was created by the 
old firm Rabbethge and Giesecke in 1859. Vilmo- 
rin, the well-known French seed producer, created the 
White Silesian and the Ameliorated, as well as the 
green and rose neck varieties. The Desprez beets are 
known as white or rose, with hard skins, white or rose 
intermediate skins, and the green neck, soft skins, with 
several early maturing varieties; Simon-Legrand has 
the white rose, white conical neck, all of which are the 
so-called ameliorated types of the German seed grow- 
ers. The most important, besides the ones mentioned 
in the foregoing, are the Knauer. Old Imperial, Rose 
and White Ameliorated Imperial and Electoral. The 
Dippe Brothers have produced a type based upon the 
Klein-Wanzleben, Imperial Ameliorated, and the Most 
"Rich. The Austrian beet of Jules-Robert is much 
liked; the varieties are few. 

It is not necessary to discuss the claims of each 
seed grower, for the practical results do not agree with 



4 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

their assertions.* In Europe great changes have 
occurred in types of beets used. From 1850 to 1859 the 
white skin varieties were the most popular; from i860 
to 1874 the rose necks and skins were in vogue. There 
were several varieties of these, but for some unknown 
reason the German sugar manufacturers refused them. 
The farmers then declined to continue planting them. 
They were, however, said to possess great maturing 
qualities; the white varieties have superseded all oth- 
ers. And, strange as it may seem, there are many 
authorities who have proved beyond cavil that, when 
comparisons are made between the best types, let them 
be of white or rose skins or necks, the sugar percent- 
age and the coefficient of purity remain about the same. 

Upon general principles, we may admit that most 
of the existing varieties are connected in some way 
with the Vilmorin French seed or with the Klein- 
Wanzleben with some variation. Among the outcome 
of the latter may be mentioned Tieder, Nordstemmer, 
Uffingen, Staessener, Schaustedter, Edderitger, Glau- 
siger, Einbecker and Sallovitger, followed by hun- 
dreds of others which are mentioned under the names 
of various dealers, to which, however, we may add the 
Koppy and Strander. 

The olive-shaped beet, such as the Buchner, never 
met with the success at one time hoped for it. A vari- 
ety one now hears very little about is the Bestehorn, 
which is rather rich in sugar. From it were created 
other varieties. The white Magdeburg beetof Schlieck- 
mann is very like the Bestehorn variety. From the Vil- 
morin types many varieties have also been created, 
and the existing standard is a combination of the origi- 
nal Vilmorin with a German variety, thus correcting 
the irregular shape that originally existed, ' and 



*In the appendix of the book we give names and addresses of all 
the leading growers, and in special cas>s a general outline of their 
varieties and claims as to sugar percentage and yield. 



EUROPEAN VARIETIES OF BEETS. O 

the color of the skin. For many years these very 
rich Vilmorin beets were irregular in color, shape, 
etc. Mention must also be made of the Brabant 
beet, which was the starting point of many 
varieties which were popular for some years in France 
and Belgium. 

Concluding Remarks. 

Taking the beet-seed question as a whole, great 
improvements are still being made, for in Germany in 
1882, the average sugar in the beet was 13. 1; sugar in 
thejuice 14.6; ten years later, in 1892, the average sugar 
in the beet was 15; sugar in the juice 16.7. True, the 
kind of soil, etc., have important influences on the vari- 
ety of beets that may be the most desirable to use, but 
the question remains, Can many of the seed growers 
keep their varieties pure under their existing methods 
of selection and cultivation? The writer thinks not, for 
reasons which shall be discussed in the following 
pages. The difference in price per pound between 
good and bad seed is not sufficient to permit of any 
hesitancy in the choice — and the results with superior 
seed will always be more satisfactory in the end. It is 
to be regretted that some American seed dealers are 
offering to their customers imported beet seed at ten 
cents per pound. It is well to call attention to the 
fact that we doubt if superior beet seed can be pro- 
duced in Europe and shipped to the United States at 
that price. More care should be taken in purchasing 
beet seed than hitherto. Reliable dealers or producers 
alone should be applied to. 

In the pages which follow we enter into consider- 
able detail respecting the science of selection, showing 
the importance of its continuance from year to year. 
If neglected, there is sure to follow a degeneration in 
the varieties under study, owing to atavismistic 
forces asserting their presence, for which facts the 
ordinary seed dealer does not allow. Then both the 



6 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

farmer and manufacturer who have had confi- 
dence, suffer. 

The mixing of worthless seed with superior seed 
has become an industry in several European centres. 
If beet seed is offered at seven or eight cents per 
pound, it is well to have it tested by some chemist who 
thoroughly understands the requisites of germination. 
Samples should be taken only from bags that have 
been closed by the seedsman, and opened in the pres- 
ence of witnesses. It is better to have no dealings 
with agents, but only with the seed producer. Let 
this question be thoroughly considered by our farming 
population contemplating beet cultivation. In most 
agricultural centres of the United States there are 
experiment stations, and the question is, Whether their 
laboratories could not render excellent services by test- 
ing beet seed for farmers and manufacturers, as is done 
with fertilizers? It often happens that seed is sown 
and its inferior quality is discovered when it is too late. 



CHAPTER II. 

Botanical Considerations Respecting Beet Seed. 

The Beta Vulgaris, as the sugar beet is called, is 
the most important of the many hundred varieties of 
the Chenopodiaceae family to which it belongs. The 
sugar beet comes under the head of the hermaphrodite 
series, which originally was annual and through culti- 
vation has become bi-annual. During the first year of 
its vegetation its function is to utilize its entire effort 
in sugar elaboration through the intervention of leaves, 
etc. During the second year there is a transformation 
of many of these organic principles, the result being 
seed formation; by this process the texture of the root 
proper becomes very much more fibrous, during which 
period there is a growth upward of stems or stalks, 
which are frequently five feet in height; upon these 
appear elongated leaves (Fig. i), which are, however, 
roundish in shape. The stems throw out branches on 
which are ears of seed. These are frequently located 
between the leaves and are generally in clusters of 
three (Fig. 2), as shown in the enlarged engraving; 
each agglomeration of flowers contains one to six or 
severr flowers, in most cases only three, and these are 
attached or stuck together. 

Historical Facts Relating to the Fertilization 

of Plants. 

Before going into details of the manner in which 
the flower of the beet is fertilized, it is interesting to 
recall several facts relating to the past. The ancient, 
authorities had very vague views of the whole ques- 
tion. It was onlv during: the Middle Acres that botanists 



8 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 



commenced to realize the relative part played by the 
stamens and pistils, and it was not until the 17th cen- 
tury that there seemed to be any certainty on the ques- 
tion. The well-known authority, Tournefort, declined 
to admit the facts as then presented; after his death, 
however,Sebastian Vaillant, in his speech at the"Jardit: 
du Roi," showed the physiological function of stamen 3 
and gave practical demonstrations of the truth of his 
assertion. This was in 1716, hence this date becomes 
an important historical one in the whole botanical sci- 
ence, and to France is due the main credit of the new 
departure. Some eight or ten years afterward Linne 





Fig. 1. Appearance ot seed and Fig. 2. Outward appearance of a 
leaves on stalk or stem. three-seed cluster. 

popularized the Vaillant truths — it was even then 
noticed that if the stigmas were withdrawn the ovums 
of the ovary could not be fertilized. The crossing of 
plants of the same family was daily practiced in botan- 
ical laboratories. On the other hand, there exists, 
then and now, one important exception to these fer- 
tilizing facts, for we are told that in the Kew Gardens 
of London they have a plant which yields seed from 
year to year, yet there is no indication of its having 
stamens. Upon general principles, we may admit 
that the time or period that the fertilization of plants 



BOTANICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



9 



occurs is when their odor reaches its height; it is when 
their color is most brilliant, and in theory, it is when 
the pollen is most actively absorbed by the organs of 
the pistil. In the case of beet seed, the special charac- 
teristic odor just mentioned is, according to Wiesner, 
due to an organic base known as trimethylamine. 

Description of the Flower.* 

The engravings (Figs. 3 and 4) give an excel- 
lent idea of the flower taken as a whole, and the 




Fig. 3. Perspective view of the flower as seen from top. 

section shows its appearance before and after matur- 
ity. The flower proper, when looked at with a 
is shown to consist of the petals 



strong 



glass. 



♦DEFINITIONS. 

Carpel— Another name tor the leaves of the pistil; it is frequently 
applied to one of the leaves of which the pistil is composed. 

Corolla — The leaves of the flower within the calyx. 

Calyx— The outer sac of the floral envelopes or leaves of the flower. 

Cotyledon — The first leaves of the embryo. 

Embryo — The rudimentary undeveloped plantlet in a seed. 

Endosperm — Another name for the albumen of seed. 

Micropyle — Closed orifice of the seed. 

Ovule— The body, which is destined to become a seed. 

Ovary — Part of pistil containing the ovules of future seed. 

Pericarp—The walls of the fruit matured. 

Pistil— Organ to be fertilized and bear the seed; if we consider from 
the bottom it consists of the ovary, the style and the stigma. 

Plumule— The small bud or first shoot of a germinating plantlet, above 
the cotyledons. 

Receptacle — The axis or support of the flower. 

Style— Part of the pistil whicn bears the stigma. 

Stigma— Part of the pistil which receives the pollen. 

Stamens — The fertilizing organs and consist of two parts, the fila- 
ment or stalk and the anther. 

Testa— The outer and usually the harder coat or shell of seed. 



10 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 



(Fig. 8, z) forming the corolla. They are slightly col- 
ored green and placed behind the five stamens; these 
petals bend over themselves as the season advances. 
The beet flower taken together is cup-like in shape, 
( Fi g- 3)- Tll e stamens are attached at their base around 
an inverted saucer-like pistil placed in the centre. The 




Jig. 4. Section of flower showing embryo and stigma. 

general arrangement is better shown in the diagram of 
the flower (Fig. 5). The anthers (Fig. 8, m) have two 
lobes or cells which open vertically, their section is 






Fig. 5. 
Plan or diagram of flower. 



Fig. 6. 
Pollen. 



Fig. 7. 
Section of pollen. 



shown in engraving (Fig. 9); the filament or stalk to 
which they are attached is kept in constant motion by 
any air disturbance. 

The pollen* granule of the sugar beet is spherical 



*Stiff has recently analyzed the pollen from beet flowers and finds 
that it contains: Water 9.78, albumen 15.25, nitric elements non-albu- 
minous 2.5, fatty substance 3.18, starch and dextrine 0.80, pentosane 
11.06, other extractive substances but not nitrogenous 23.7, cellulose 
25.45, ash 8.28. In 100 parts of the pollen ash there is 5.8 potassa and 
6.65 phosphoric acid. 



BOTANICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



11 



in shape (Figs. 6 and 7), and when the proper 
time arrives is most abundant, more so than 
with any other plant of which we know. The 
pollens have a diameter of 20 micro-millimeters, 
but in some cases this may be from 13.3 to 
25.8 m. m. The exterior surface of these granules is 




Fig. 8. Flowers at various stages of maturity. 



smooth, with about thirty-five pores, which have special 
function during the fertilization of the ovum. The pis- 
til is advantageously placed to receive the pollen on 
top of the style (Fig 8, /), called stigma. The pistil 
consists, as it were, of three small leaves, or carpels; 
these communicate with the ovarv. There is onlv one 






Fro. 9. Stamens (detail of anthers). 
Back view. Front view. 



Section. 



ovum in each ovary. The fruit, so-called, when only 
casually examined seems one, but closer observation 
shows it to be several distinct seeds, which in number 



12 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 



correspond to the fertilized ovum of each flower. The 
engraving (Fig. 8), shows several flowers in different 
states of maturity, all adhering to the same stem; a: 
the same time their pericarps are nearly blended 
together, and when completely matured they 
frequently form one. 

Fertilization. 

When the proper time approaches and the anther- 
are in a perfect condition of maturity, a very little air 





Fig. 10. Section of flower 
through pisiil. 



Fig. 11. Section of nucleus. 



is sufficient to carry the pollen from their surface. 
What seems strange respecting the hermaphrodite 
plant, such as the beet, is that the male portion of the 
plant does not, according to Darwin, mature at the same 




5 6 

Fig. 12. Seed development. 

time as the female; the consequence is that seldom, if 
ever, the beet flower is self-fertilized, but it is the pol- 
len from some other flower which happens to be blown 
in contact with the pistil, to be communicated by the 
style to the embryo. This assertion coming from any 



BOTANICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



13 



SI 

O 
O 

H 
OS 




V 



14 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

botanist other than such an eminent authority would 
be refuted, for the anatomy of the beet's flower appears 
to be particularly favorable for its own fertilization, 
the abundance of the pollen on the one hand and a 
single ovary on the other. When the proper condi- 
tions are reached, the stigmas become moist and sticky, 
so as to hold the pollen granules that may fall upon 
them either from the same flower or another close 
at hand, or, in many cases, very far off. Unlike many 
other plants, the anther of the beet flower opens freely. 
The phenomenon of projection of this pollen is of more 
than usual interest, as mentioned in the forexroine: the 
period the plant is most active in its fertilization is 
when the perfume is the most characteristic: the mois- 





Fig. 14. Section of pericarp Fie. 15. Seed taken from bard 

of seed. outer covering. 

ture then to a large extent leaves the anthers, a con- 
traction of the cells holding the pollen follows, the 
cavity of anthers becoming smaller, and the granules 
are forced out and thrown a considerable distance. 
The stigmas retain on their surface a large number of 
the pollen granules; these, being on a thin absorbing 
surface, soon swell and are absorbed by osmosis; the 
pollen then extends itself and the style (Fig. io, /), 
allows its passage into the ovary through the micropyle. 
A section of the flower through the pistil and 
ovary shows just how the communication is made; the 
petals are visible. The ovum (Fig. io, s) has a 
certain slant on its plane which is the same as 
that of the carpels. The various stages (Fig. 12, I, 2, 



BOTANICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 15 

3, 4, 5 and 6) of the ovum development from the period 
of its first fertilization are shown herewith. These are 
taken fromKruger's observations — the final (Fig. 12,6) 
drawing shows the ultimate seed in its sac. The ovum 
considered separately undergoes constant changes 
even before it is fertilized. The ovule consists of a cen- 
tral cone or nucleus (Fig. n, u), around which 
there are several layers of cells (Fig. n, c, and m). 
The growing is around the nucleus and over it, with the 
exception of the small opening (Fig. 11, s) or micro- 
pyle. One cell has expanded very much at the expense 
of the others and soon occupies the greater part 
of the nucleus. This becomes the embryo-sac, but its 
formation depends upon the presence of the pollen 





Vig. 16. Seciion.of seed. I'm. IT. Appearance of tesia magnified. 

tubes. After they have touched the dark spot on top of 
the nucleus, a membraneous cell wall forms around the 
protoplastic contents of the sac; these cells divide and 
sub-divide, and finally develop the embryo. During 
this period, in the lower part of the embryo-sac an 
indefinite number of minute cells are forming; these arc 
the starting points for the albumen. We neglected to 
mention that the ovules are generally produced on the 
outer edge of the capillary leaf; the spongy thicken- 
ing is known as the funicle.* As the partitions or 



*The above is only a conjecture. There are numerous eases of plants 
with one-eel] ovary, wlieii tlie ovule is developed from the floral axis. 



16 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 



cells form, they attach themselves to the narrow part of 
the sac, the larger part forming the cotyledon. 



Enlarged Microscopical Section of the 

Seed. 



Entire 



The engraving (Fig. 13) is a section of beet seed 
made by Drs. Westler and Stoklasa. It shows what 
the conditions are much more satisfactorily than 
the drawing we have made and described in this 
writing. C are the two cotyledons; r. radicle; p, peri- 
sperm ;e, endosperm (albumen found inside the embryo- 
sac); t, testa. The endosperm in most cases con- 
sists of only one layer, while the testa has two: i*t, the 
yellow, which consists of a single layer of cellulose; 
2d, the brown, which is possibly made up of two flat 
layers. The curved germ r, radicle, and c, its two 





FIG. 18. Section M. N. 



Fig. 19. Starch cell. 



cotyledons, retains the perisperm tissue; the cells are 
very fatty, and the starch granules appear round or 
elliptical. The lower portion of radicle (r) is covered 
with a layer (/) of endosperm, which may be detached, 
and consists of one laver of elongated cells. The cells 
of which the radicle and cotyledons consist, hold fatty 
but not starchy granules. 

It frequently happens, just as it does in animal 
physiology, that the ovum is not fertilized; it then 
withers and disappears, the explanation of which con- 



BOTANICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 17 

tinttes to be a mystery. The petals and stamens, once 
their functions are completed, dry up, and in case of 
beet seed they frequently persistently remain. 

Botanical Examination of Beet Seed. 

If we examine the seed as found on the market, we 
find a rather hard substance with a very rough sur- 
face and very irregular in shape. By slicing with a 
knife this so-called seed in one direction, we obtain a 
section as shown (Fig. 14); if from these sockets, which 
we examine, the seed proper is withdrawn, we find it 
has the appearance shown in Fig. 15 as seen in front; 
on top and side the shape is somewhat triangular and 
the surface smooth and brown in color; the side view 
shows it to be convex and generally measures in length 
3 m. m. and 1.5 m. m. in width. This seed has no diffi- 
culty in penetrating the outer covering through a 
small opening when the proper conditions of heat and 
moisture are furnished in the soil. On the outer cov- 
ering, or pericarp, is frequently found what remains of 
the carpels, and also, in most cases, the dried petals. A 
section of the seed, made with a knife, and looked at 
with a strong glass, reveals its arrangement, the same 
as shown in section (Fig. 16); at e may be seen 
the cotyledons and at v the plumule, or the first bud 
from which will form the shoot of the germinating 
plantlet above the cotyledons. The root subsequently 
develops from r. Droysen declares that at r may be 
found eight to fifteen layers of cells which contain 
granules of protein in an oleaginous mass. The brown 
color of the seed comes from its testa covering; this is 
in several layers, the principal ones being the exterior 
and interior. Its botanical structure is rather difficult 
to get at, but under the microscope its appearance is 
about as shown (Fig. 17), this being many hundred 
times magnified. The outer layer mainly has for its 
principal function that of regulating the germination of 



18 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

the seed, by allowing moisture, etc., from the environ- 
ment in which the seed may be, to enter by osmosis in- 
the proper proportions. 

Drs. Westler and Stoklasa have made a very thor- 
ough microscopical and chemical examination of the 
testa, and have discovered that the tissue is largely 
made up of crystals of oxalate of lime, from which it is 
concluded that nearly all the calcium of the seed is 
found in the outer and inner layers of the testa. (The 
inner cellular layer of the exterior of the testa consists 
of small cells almost round. The inner yellow ochre 
layer, on the other hand, consists of a single layer of 
polygonal elements, which are smaller and not so flat 
as those of the outer portion of the testa.) It has been 
possible to extract several grains of the lime oxalate 
from the testa, and this substance has served for the 
estimation of pentosanes, by the Tollcn-Kruger 
method. From the quantity of phlaroglucide, that of 
the furfurol may be calculated. On a basis of dry sub- 
stance, it was found that there is 10.24 P er cent, furfurol 
for 18.85 P er cent, pentosane. These figures show that 
the testa is very rich in pentosane; it is said that these 
substances form a chemical combination with the cellu- 
lose of the testa. * 

While the exterior coating is dark brown and con- 
sists of two layers of cells which are very flat, some 
authorities declare that seed which will not germinate 
is yellow green; on the other hand, seeds that have 
great germinating powers have the tip end of their 
root of a color which approaches violet. The seed, 
M, N, (Fig. 16) taken as a whole, is blue white. If we 



♦These ligno-celluloses, according to Gross, and Bewan, have the 
following formula : 

4 C 6 H10 O5 C 5 Hio 5 C10 Hi 8 0* 



v_ 



cellulose Pentosane Keto-hexan groups 

Non-celluloses, 



BOTANICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



19 



make a section through M, N, as the seed was' with its 
outer covering, or pericarp, we have a most excellent 
example of how the seeds are separated, and their 
respective positions. The petals (Fig. 18, a) are visi- 
ble on top, the cotyledons e, the root n and testa x are 
shown in section; / is what remains of the carpels. 

The endosperm or albumen /> is white in appear- 
ance and is made up of a series of starch cells, differ- 
ent, however, from those found in the potato; they are 
geometrical in shape. One of these starch grains is 





Fig. 20. Seed with descending root. Fig. 21. Tip end of root showing 

t)»e plant cells us seen under 
microscope. 

shown in Fig. 19; its diameter is cxo68 to 0.140 m. m. 
They are very fragile and break under a very slight 
pressure into small particles; they measure only 0.004 
m. m. In certain cases they appear to have a molec- 
ular motion. 

Planted Seed (Botanical). 

The bladder-like cell of which the final embryo 
consists, multiplies, as before said, into a series of sub- 
divisions; the process continues after sprouting and 



20 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 




*-V .%i' •■£-.;"-■ ----- -.,'-< 

llpr 

Us m; 



i irftiHtii 



Fig. 22. Legkas Beet with Stalks and Seed. 



BOTANICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 21 

even when the beet has attained its maturity, the build- 
ing-up of cell structure continues, the first or last cell 
being essentially the same. The plantlet before appear- 
ing above ground is like the engraving (Fig. 20), 
as seen to the eye, but under a strong microscope the 
structure of the root is made visible; the tip end shown 
in Fig. 21 gives some important idea of just what the 
cells in question look like. 

Upon general principles, we may admit that vege- 
table growth consists of two things: Expansion of a cell 
until it attains its full size, then multiplication of the 
cells in number. As the outer layers are worn away 
by the root forcing itself through the soil, they are 
renewed by inner layers, which in turn are replaced. 

Maturity. 

This in reality means the changes which occur 
from the time the embryo is formed until tAe grain may 
be taken from the stalk. The fruit proper, until that 
maturity is reached, is living just as live the leaves of 
plants, viz.: During the day a different respiration from 
that of the night. When the maturity is completed, the 
tissue changes and the fibro-vascular detaches itself. 
The cellulose of the fruit loses its carbon and hydro- 
gen and becomes starch ; by the addition of water, this 
is changed to sugar. When the maturity is complete, 
the seed throws out the carbonic acid formed at the 
expense of the sugar. Seeds on the lower part of the 
stalks are said to be the first to mature; those on top 
are last to ripen and frequently do not ripen. When 
planted, these often germinate with difficulty. 

The engraving (Fig. 22) shows the appearance of 
the entire root, with the stalks, when the beet matures 
after the second year. The appearance of the seed 
when matured upon its stalk is also of interest; as 
shown (Fig. 23), the petals are still adhering and when 
further dried will hide the seed proper almost 
from sight. 






SUGAR BEET SEED. 



A. F. Jesnez claims that he has noticed that in 
years when the maturing period was excessively hot, the 
seed ripened too soon. This fact may be demonstrated 
by cutting the seed in two and examining with a strong 
magnifying glass. It will be noticed that many of the 
seed cells are empty. The excessive heat is supposed 
to have closed the plant cells before their maturity, 
leaving, however, the outer surface very hard, which in 
many cases frequently misleads, and even when the 




Fig. 23. Matured seed with dried petals on stalk. 

germ exists, the sprouts in the germinator do not 
appear as soon as they do under ordinary conditions 
of growth. 

Physiological Functions of the Embryo and 

Albumen. 

We are all aware that albumen forms a food 
supply for the young plant during its early develop- 
ment; but this question considered from a physiolog- 
ical and chemical standpoint is a new departure. A 
portion of what follows is the conclusion of Drs. West- 
ler and Stoklasa. 

These examinations offer great difficulty, owing 
to the close adherence of the perisperm (albumen) 



BOi'ANICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 23 

and the embryo. The data relating to the analysis of the 
entire seed are not sufficiently accurate for any positive 
scientific conclusion. Herewith, however, is the analy- 
sis of seed without the exterior testa, as all the inner 
layer o* the testa could not be separated or removed: 
Total nitrogen, 4.32 per cent.; nitrogen in the shape of 
albumen, 3.85 per cent.; fatty substances (not includ- 
ing lecithin), 20.02 per cent.; lecithin, 0.46 per cent.; 
cellulose, 2.31 per cent.; pentosane, 2.26 per cent.; 
starch, 37.31 per cent.; ash, 3.52 per cent. Composition 
of ash; potassium monoxide, 20.14 per cent.; sodic 
monoxide, 8.01 per cent.; magnesia monoxide, 
1 1.2 per cent.: calcic oxide, 3.83 per cent.; ferric oxide, 
0.47 per cent.: phosphoric acid, 43.27 per cent.; anhy- 
drous sulphuric acid, 9.02 per cent.; silicic acid, 2.8 
per cent. 

The localization of the reserve food is as follows: 
Albuminoids are in the embryo, in quantities that may 
reach 24 per cent.; these same substances, but in inac- 
tive form, become soluble during germination, owing 
to the influence of enzymes. -According to Neumeis- 
ter, this ferment has the same reaction as animal pep- 
sin, when in a slightly acidulated solution and in the 
presence of organic acids. The enzymes can never be 
found on seed during germination. The fatty matter 
•contained in beet seed is an oily substance. It is found 
not only in the embryo, but also in the perisperm (albu- 
men) and has very important physiological functions 
to fulfill during germination, as it is energetically con- 
sumed under the influence of the enzymes, and thus 
helps the formation of new and living molecules. 

TJie plantlets, during germination, when reaching 
the first stage of development, contain only 1.6 per- 
cent, of fatty substances (not including lecithin and 
cholesterin), while the quantity in the inactive primi- 
tive seed is 20 per cent. It has been determined by the 
thorough investigation of years previous that the leci- 



24 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

thin is exclusively found in the embryo. Starch, on 
the other hand, is mainly contained in the perisperm. 
The percentage, 2.26 of pentosane, calculated on the 
basis of furfurol, is not absolutely invariable, as from 
recent investigations it is shown that many substances 
contained in the organism of plants, such as starch, 
fructose, etc., also nitrogenous substances, such as 
nuclein, etc., also supply furfurol. It is possible to 
admit that the hemi-celluloses are found in the cotyle- 
dons, which contain pentosane, also galacton. It 
is claimed that this substance, during germination, 
underthe influence of diastasic fermentation, is changed 
into galactose and arabinose. The mineral matter, as 
determined by the analysis of beet-seed ashes, is main!/ 
combined with the organic substances in different parts 
of the seed. Phosphoric acid is found in very 
small quantities, and the same may be said of sulphur, 
iron and magnesia. These four elements, phosphorus 
sulphur, iron and magnesia, are harmoniously unite! 
and located in the embryo. On the other hand, it is 
most difficult to determine the exact portion of the seed 
where the protoplasm is to be found. Messrs. Westler 
and Stoklasa say that all leads to the supposition that 
is not far from the carbohydrates; that is, in the per 
sperm. The protoplasm of the embryo, as soon as it 
commences to show signs of life, secretes enzymes; 
these have a certain action on the reserve plant food 
«nd facilitate their assimilation by the protoplasm. The 
assimilation and dissimulation go on very rapidly dur- 
ing the first periods of germination, and reach a maxi- 
mum on the fifth day, providing all the conditions of 
heat, moisture and temperature are favorable* The 
vital energy developed by the embryo during this stage 
has apparently considerable influence on the formation 
of certain nourishing substances upon which proto- 
plasm depends. After this formation, the taking up of 
organic combinations by the embryo ceases. 



BOTANICAL CONSIDERATIONS* 25 

It is an important biological fact that the embryo 
of beet seed is very susceptible to any change of tem- 
perature and moisture. One might conclude that 
nature had in view the protection of the seed against 
these variations, when the testa be considered, for 
under its influence the variations, whatever they be, are 
necessarily retarded. These pathological influences 
are excited in proportion to the inclination of the 
microbes of the seed to nourish themselves upon the 
radicle of the embryo, when the germination is first 
starting. The exterior cover of beet seed contains an 
indefinite number of microbes; for one gram these have 
been found to number 300,000. Hence, it is proposed 
to increase the germinative power of beet seed by 
steeping in a weak 0.1 per cent, solution of chloride of 
mercury; this should be followed by a washing in ster- 
ilized water. It is claimed that through this antiseptic 
treatment the young plant is protected in advance 
against many diseases to which it is constantly 
exposed. The preparing of seed before sowing is very 
thoroughly discussed elsewhere in this writing. 



CHAPTER III. 

Requirements of Sugar Beet Seed. 

Preliminary Remarks. — If one were to read all 
that has been written on the question of sugar-beet 
seed, only a general idea could be formed of what care 
and science, combined with experience, are required 
not only to produce a seed of a given quality, but to 
retain its high standard of excellence, which competi- 
tion compels a seed grower to maintain. Some years 
ago, it was claimed that the soil of France was not 
suited to the cultivation of superior beets, the Germans 
having been supposed to have had a monopoly in this 
respect. Since 1884, circumstances have changed. The 
new law, now in existence for over fourteen years, has 
encouraged farmers to devote their energies to beets 
rich in sugar. This, as may be imagined, gave an 
impetus to the problem of superior sugar-beet seed 
production, and at present among the best customers 
are those who were previously so much dreaded. The 
selection of beets with the view to their amelioration in 
sugar percentage, is a branch of agriculture for which 
France can justly claim priority. While other coun- 
tries have followed in the paths shown them, the 
methods have remained the same. The water proc- 
ess for sugar determination, so generally adopted both 
in Germany and France, is also of French origin. It 
is not claimed here that all French seed is superior to 
all German varieties, for such is not the case; inferior 
seed exists in France, while in Germany much remains 
to be done, there being in both countries numerous 
seed growers who are thoroughly ignorant of the ele- 
mentary requirements for success. 

26 



REQUIREMENTS QF SUGAR BEET SEED. #7 

As the financial returns of a sugar factory depend 
very largely upon the quality of beets furnished by the 
farmers, it is in justice to the grower that he have at 
his disposal those varieties of seed that will give the 
most encouraging results. It is a disgraceful fact that 
many beet-seed dealers have furnished on several occa- 
sions, and continue the practice, seed that either would 
not germinate or else is a mixture of fresh and old 
seed, or, again, of a quality other than that ordered, 
the buyer being misled by the label on the bag. It 
has frequently happened that the demand has been 
greater than the supply, and without hesitation the 
difficulty has been met by dishonest methods of pur- 
chasing from some other seed grower the requisite 
amount, and mixing this seed, obtained elsewhere, with 
the kind delivered under the name of the seller. 

From what has just been said, the first question 
to be considered when purchasing beet seed is the sci- 
entific methods of selection adopted by the grower, 
and the next questions which are of equal importance, 
is to determine whether all seed sold under a grower's 
name is or is not actually produced by him, whether 
it has the age claimed, or whether it is of the variety 
represented to be by the contract of sale. In what fol- 
lows in these pages,, an outline is given of what a supe- 
rior seed consists, with rules regulating the sale, the 
best methods for moisture, impurities and germination 
determinations. If these tests are made, the purchaser 
will have some protection, and not be misled as he has 
frequently been. Upon general principles, it may be 
admitted that seed growers who have not a specialty 
cannot give the same attention to beet-seed production 
as a specialist, and all arguments to the contrary are 
simply misleading. During the past twenty years the 
editor of The Sugar Beet has watched the results 
obtained from seed furnished by European and Ameri- 
can dealers, and, strange as it may seem, there are not 



28 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 



more than five growers in the world giving entire sat- 
isfaction to all interested. Just why this has been the 
case has already been hinted at in the foregoing. It is 
a great mistake to purchase beet seed through a second 
Or third hand, as the chances of fraud are then always 
greater, and when they do occur the seed grower is at 
a disadvantage, as his name is connected with the 
product sold. 

The several existing varieties of beets are named 
after their originators, and as they have not the same 
external characteristics, they may be distinguished one 
from the other; consequently, there is evidently some 
important relation between the methods of selection 
and the ultimate shape of the root created. Beet seed 
of superior quality is frequently furnished by seed 
growers one year, but the second supply is disappoint- 
ing. Then again it also happens that experiments 
are made upon soils to determine their adapta- 
bility for sugar-beet cultivation, excellent seed being 
used. The resulting roots show very high sugar per- 
centage, but they are irregular in shape, which is sup- 
posed to be the result of faulty working of the soil. 
Laboratory investigation of such beets would be mis- 
leading, as they could not be worked at the sugar 
factory, and their irregular contours are innate charac- 
teristics. The problem in seed production consists* in 
obtaining a variety that will give a regular, elongated 
beet, containing 15 per cent, sugar, with a yield that 
may ^e depended upon. Of late years very little is 
said about those early maturing varieties that were 
destined to revolutionize all others. In this who ■* 
question of many varieties claiming certain yields and 
adapted to special soils, are issues that have very little 
practical value, since, with changed environment 
the promises held out are not realized, and conse- 
quently the time and energy expended in creatingthese 
new and varied types may be considered lost. 



REQUIREMENTS OF SUGAR BEET SEED. 29 

It is only in very exceptional cases that the seed 
grower with his Nos. i, 2, etc., good, better and best, 
can continue to create under like conditions; it may, 
for example, be admitted that Mr. A's elongated yel- 
low top, averaging 14 per cent, sugar and giving a 
yield of eighteen tons to the acre, has actually existed, 
and that there is unlimited evidence to prove that A's 
assertions can be relied upon. Unfortunately, how- 
ever, the patch devoted this year to mothers of type No. 
2 is not the same as previously. The conditions not 
being the same, on account of the variance in composi- 
tion of the fertilizer between one patch and another, the 
seed obtained will no longer be the same as in previous 
years, and therefore cannot be called No. 2. Alas! what- 
ever might have been the conditions in the beginning, 
they are no longer true as soon as new elements enter 
to modify the environment. These difficulties will 
continue to exist as long as the many-variety system 
of seed growing continues. Purchasers will receive 
for their money hybrids of the original types. One 
need only visit the beet-seed plantations coming under 
the writer's notice to appreciate the ignorance and 
mistakes on the one hand, and the intelligence and 
exact science on the other. A botanical principle that 
seems too frequently forgotten is, that when two plants 
of the same family, one of a superior and the other of 
an inferior variety, are cultivated side by side, or within 
reasonable limits of each other, the ultimate effect is 
that the types are altered; the new creation will be of 
a lower variety than those previously existing. Hence, 
How can a seed grower, from a rational standpoint, 
hope to create a reliable kind of beet seed when his 
methods of production depend upon so many variable 
conditions? From what has been said in the foregoing, 
success for quality means constancy of conditions, 
within reasonable limits. 

Those methods of seed production depending 



,30 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

upon the planting of mothers in a new country, satis- 
factory or not, only suppose that selections are made 
every two years, as the seed obtained from the exported 
mothers is planted again at home and the mothers 
from these furnish seed to the trade. In theory, this 
method may have many advantages, since the stimu- 
lated effects from a change of climate hundreds of 
miles away may then strengthen the beets and have an 
important influence on the resulting seed. But where 
the fallacy comes in, is the use of grandmothers for the 
production of seed, rather than selected mothers. It 
would be impossible to declare that this latter method 
has ever been carried out on any extensive scale. There 
are very few seed growers who would be willing to give 
a guarantee that their entire crop of seed was produced 
under the same conditions. Is it not natural to con- 
clude that the simpler the scientific methods of seed 
production, the greater the chances for success? Con- 
centration of effort to produce one type instead of 
many is the true basis, notwithstanding the fact that 
many argue to the contrary. That will lead to success 
and will yield results which in the long run may be 
relied upon. In conclusion, it is well to remember that 
as all countries are not equally suited to the production 
of beet seed, the actual facts should be known as a cer- 
tainty before too much time and labor be expended. 

The Advantages of One Variety of Beets. 

in theory, it is all very well for growers to declare 
that they furnish seeds that are adapted to special con- 
ditions of soil, climate, etc ; in practice, however, the 
results obtained are not up to promises. The time given 
to selecting or creating many varieties, if the interest of 
the beet-sugar manufacturer be considered, had far 
better been concentrated on one type. It is claimed 
that for rich and deep soils a late-maturing beet is 
needed, while the early-maturing types are adapted to 



REQUIREMENTS OF SUGAR BEET SEED. 31 

cold soils without much depth. How is all this to be 
accomplished? Will seed produced in one country yield 
beets having the same characteristics as their grand- 
mothers in another environment? Will the earlv and 
late maturing tendencies remain the same in the 
United States, with very hot summers and cold winters, 
as they were in the temperature of France, Germany, 
or Austro-Hungary? Upon general principles, one can 
say positively they will not. It must, however, be 
admitted, in justice to the seed grower, that he is at fre- 
tjuent disadvantage. He may furnish diagrams, with 
circulars giving details for planting, and other data, but 
the farmers pay little or no attention to such instruc- 
tions, it being difficult enough to prevail upon them to 
adhere to rules laid down by the manufacturer by whom 
they are bound by contract, without attempting a still 
more complicated issue. If each seed demands a spe- 
cial method of cultivation, the question from an agri- 
cultural standpoint not only becomes confusing, but 
discouraging for all interested. If special tempera- 
tures, elevation, soil, etc., are needed for each variety 
of beets furnished, the question becomes so compli- 
cated that it seems almost useless to attempt any culti- 
vation. Furthermore, it is constantly maintained that 
the period of maturity of a given beet must occur in a 
certain number of weeks. This, also, is very mislead- 
ing, as the total degrees of heat are the only basis. 
That there exist types of beets maturing one month 
before another variety, is very doubtful. 

However, this question for many years was dis- 
cussed and investigated by Ch. Violette and Desprez. 
In France, as a general thing, it may be admitted that 
beets attain their maturity during October; as a result, 
the campaigns are very short and the limited time for 
harvesting does not allow a preparation of the soil for 
the crop that is to follow. Evidently, if a race of beets 
could be created maturing, as a certainty, in Septem- 



32 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

ber, excellent service could be rendered; this has 
been accomplished with the potato, etc.; appar- 
ently there is no reason why the results should not 
be equally promising with beets. The early maturing 
beets of an inferior quality were introduced in 1866; 
these beets had smooth skins, small necks, etc., and 
were very susceptible to the slightest variation of tem- 
perature or moisture. It is claimed that the persistency 
of farmers in using that inferior type of beet brought 
about a great decline in the sugar industry of France. 
The attempt to solve the problem was by depending 
upon exterior signs and chemical analysis. The basis 
of maturity was constancy in weight; experiments 
showed that there was a variety which in September 
remained constant and from it was obtained the variety 
known as early maturing. 

It is claimed that while this type yields less in 
weight per acre than the later maturing kind, they pos- 
sess the advantage of allowing them to be used at the 
factory a month earlier than would have been other- 
wise possible. The writer's observation respecting the 
question is, that the results not being reliable, the vari- 
ety is not to be recommended. 

From what has just been said, it becomes evident 
that the best results can only be reached by allowing 
many of the complicated requisites to take care of 
themselves. If it is impossible to produce one variety 
of beets suitable to all soils, it is still more difficult to 
create a special variety that is to be adapted to a soil 
which is thousands of miles away, and of which a gen- 
eral analysis has not been made, or any special descrip- 
tion given by the owner as to what kind it 
belongs, and hence, subsequent attempts at beet 
cultivation are frequently complete failures. On 
the other hand, for a beet possessing all-round 
qualities, such as shape, sugar percentage, etc., 
created by a seed grower who has only one 



REQUIREMENTS OF SUGAR BEET SEED. 33 

idea, and that is to obtain a regular tapering root 
rich in sugar, the chances for success are far better 
than when too many intricate questions are involved, 
there being no possibility of hybrids, no temptation to 
cheat. How frequently it happens that one variety is 
all sold and yet more supposed to be of the same kind 
is furnished, by a simple change in the label on the 
bag. How frequently it also happens that seed produ- 
cers purchase their seed from a competitor, who is less 
known in the market than themselves, this seed being 
then sold not under the grower's, but the seller's name. 
As manufacturers are largely in the hands of seed pro- 
ducers, it is to their interest that they insist upon sim- 
pler methods of selection and requirements. There 
are two kinds of seed growers; one is, where the selec- 
tion is followed according to certain rules, and the 
other, where efforts are made to produce a special race, 
to which the grower attaches his name. The latter are 
more satisfactory; but unfortunately, they have to con- 
tend with rural growers, who use the best types at their 
disposal, but not following strictly the technical lines 
of selection that they should, there is a constant rever- 
sion to lower forms, as the atavism has its full influence 
as soon as there is the slightest departure from the 
methods of selection and regeneration adopted during 
a period of years. 

Advantages of Early Selection. — The mistake made 
by most seed producers is, that they take too long to 
accomplish what they have in view, the consequence 
being that beets that were destined to become mothers 
give discouraging results and are rejected; rapidity in 
selection is the keystone for success. There certainly 
do not exist many examples in the whole animal or 
vegetable kingdom where tardy selection produces 
superior progeny. Beets are not an exception to the 
rule; when they are harvested they have a latent energy 
or vitality that remains dormant during a period of 



34 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

months, to return to life, as it were, with renewed 
vigor. If, when taken from the soil, they are rich in 
sugar, the seed that they will ultimately germinate will 
be possessed of their mother characteristics. As they 
must be kept in silos during a period of months, cer- 
tain transformations occur, which are thoroughly inde- 
pendent of the ultimate results. The innate sugar 
characteristic, the outcome of man's creation, will con- 
tinue, with, however, a constant tendency toward a 
return to the lower forms, this tendency requiring sev- 
eral generations to develop, as the interval between the 
first and second year's growth has no material influ- 
ence. Whatever may be the care given to siloing 
mothers, there is always a sugar loss during their keep- 
ing, and in December the saccharine percentage may 
be fourteen, while in March only twelve, and by the 
prolonged delay in selection this individual beet would 
be rejected, yet its sugar percentage at the time of 
examination would be very misleading; for the Decem- 
ber characteristic should have been the prevailing issue 
to be considered. 

One frequently sees circulars of seed growers who 
contend that they make several hundred thousand 
analyses in their beet selections; in most cases this 
extends over a period of six months, which, means, dur- 
ing this time that the silos have been opened and 
closed daily, which practice has certainly a very con- 
siderable influence On the nature and quality of the 
roots being analyzed. The mode of analyzing beets 
for mothers, selecting those which have remained 
siloed during so long a period, is a practice which 
should certainly be abandoned. The theory that 
keeping in silos has the advantage of allowing an ulti- 
mate selection based upon the keeping qualities, does 
not compensate for the disadvantage of the practice, 
and in cases where the silos have been poorly venti- 
lated and badly constructed, very misleading results 



REQUIREMENTS OF SUGAR BEET SEED. 35 

would be obtained. The rise in temperature means 
second growth and corresponding loss of sugar; 
through this and other causes just mentioned very- 
superior beets might be rejected. 

M. Lemaire, a French seed grower, attaches great 
importance to a double method of selection, one in 
December and the other in March; it is possible, then, 
within reasonable limits to determine just what the 
keeping powers have been. Experience seems to show 
that this question of retaining vitality during a period 
of months is more pronounced with some beets than 
it is with others; furthermore, this is a hereditary con- 
dition and is one of those elements too frequently over- 
looked, but far too costly to put into practice. If a 
variety of beet could be created with special resisting 
powers, it would render sugar manufacturers great 
service during those years when the beet crop is abun- 
dant, as then the beets could be siloed until used, thus 
giving a very extended period to the sugar campaign. 
Dippe Brothers, Saxony, keep 100,000 beets in silos 
during the entire winter; 33,000 are kept for mothers 
and 67,000 are fed to cattle; great stress is placed on 
the keeping qualities. 

The selection by the Knauer method does not take 
place until March or April, the final classification being 
into three varieties, good, better and best. The good 
ones may be irregular in shape, but are not used for 
seeding purposes. The writer considers that if the 
entire selection of mothers could be made the day of 
harvesting, the science of selection would have reached 
its zenith; but while this cannot be done with exist- 
ing facilities, the nearer we approach it, the nearer we 
will be to the perfection aspired to. These assertions are 
not theory or passing conclusions, but facts based upon 
experience. In most mother-selecting laboratories, 
not more than 2500 analyses can be made per diem, 
while at the Laon sugar factory 10,000 are within the 



36 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

limits of possibilities of the existing laboratory facili- 
ties. This could never have been attained had not the 
most recent innovation, meaning progress, been 
resorted to. This working of the said laboratory is 
described in some detail in the present writing. It is 
interesting to contrast the results obtained in two 
months with those extending from harvesting to 
replanting, as is most generally practiced. During 
the current year there will be not less than 255,000 
analyses made during an interval of sixty days. These 
will show about as usual that there were 27,000 
beets testing between 14 to 16 per cent, sugar; 
nearly 30,000 polarizing 15 to 16 per cent.; 19,000, \6 
to 17 per cent.; over 35,000 between 17 and 18 per 
cent.; 10,000, 18 to 19 per cent., and 2000, 19 to 20 per 
cent. Besides which, must be mentioned 4500 analy- 
ses made outside of the ordinary or regular laboratory 
work. Those beets known as Elite, testing 20 per 
cent, and more, are analyzed for the second time to 
make sure that the first observations were reliable. 

The most experienced seed producers have now 
come to the conclusion that it is a waste of time to 
attempt ameliorating the saccharine quality of beets 
when 20 to 22 per cent, sugar is attained. 
Every experiment, made with the greatest care to 
increase the latter, resulted in comparatively inferior 
roots, containing about 17 per cent, sugar. This 
is self-evident, as there exists a physiological law, 
that when a certain degree of perfection is reached by 
a well-organized selection, there is a constant tendency 
to revert to the inferior condition. Special care is 
always given to these high testing beets. They must 
be kept separate and watched — as sometimes they are 
stolen. They may be used for regenerating the race. 
Determining just which these superior beets are, may 
be accomplished under far better circumstances by 
early rather than late selection. The type of these very 



REQUIREMENTS OF SUGAR BEET SEED. 37 

Elite beets, say of even 19 per cent, sugar, has yet to be 
created by Legras. There are, as we have just said, 
great difficulties to overcome; but it is possible that 
success may be attained in the end, but not, however, 
upon the existing basis of selection, as described in 
what follows. 

Conclusions Respecting Selection in General. 

One fact is certain, that superior seed cannot be 
obtained as a continuous certainty unless all scientific 
principles known about the subject be adhered to. 
The farmer and the manufacturer must work together, 
since their interests are the same. Theories, however 
absurd they may seem, however much they may be in 
opposition to existing beliefs, should be given a fair 
trial, unless the same lines of research have already 
been thoroughly investigated; then it would be a loss 
of time to go over the same ground. If a seed pro- 
ducer hopes to rival his neighbor by honest means, he 
must necessarily be familiar with all his competitor's 
methods of selection, sale, etc.; respecting the latter, 
exact information is almost impossible to obtain. It 
must not be forgotten that if a seed grower attains a cer- 
tain degree of excellence in the saccharine qualities of 
his beets, and is contented with the results obtained, 
and does not continue his selection from year to year 
with the view of realizing a still greater amelioration, 
after an elapse of a reasonable interval, complaints will 
surely pour in from customers, that there has been a 
most unsatisfactory crop of beets obtained from seed 
furnished, that the season, etc., have been favorable 
and that seed from other sources have given excel- 
lent results. Consequently, when one centres his 
efforts upon the continued creation of not many, but of 
one variety of beet adapted to most soils, he is doing 
more towards the progress of the beet-sugar industry 
than another who attempts to mislead the purchaser 



38 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

by a lot of high-sounding names of varieties almost 
without limit, supposed to give excellent results upon 
any and every soil in most varied climes. In justice to 
those who purchase beet seed, the foregoing may be of 
interest; all other issues respecting variety of seed, 
what kind existed, who their growers were, etc., have 
been discussed in previous writings. Let the Ameri- 
can manufacturer think twice before he experiments 
with a variety of beet that has not been accepted by the 
European beet-sugar manufacturing syndicates. 

Annual Beets. 

Normal sugar beets, as used for sugar manufac- 
ture, go to seed only after the second year, and for that 
reason are known as bi-annuals. Many of their roots, 
however, produce seed the first year, and these are 
known as annuals. The exact cause of this abnormal 
phenomenon has never been entirely accounted for. 
The reversion to lower or original forms is due to 
atavism and it, with faulty methods of selection, may be 
considered the two main causes. The fact is. that roots 
having small, conical necks have generally an annual 
tendency; the age of the seed used is also a factor not 
to be overlooked. Beets, when scientifically selected, 
should furnish roots which never give more than 2 per 
cent, annuals. 

As a general rule, it has been noticed that annuals 
are more numerous on fields which have been sown 
early. The fact is, the same seed, sown upon the same 
soil, under exactly the same conditions, but at different 
times, at intervals of a few days, will give a different 
percentage of annuals. If there are open spaces in 
fields due to too early planting, or other reasons, it is 
better to fill in these by late sowing and thus reduce 
the percentage of annuals which would possibly fol- 
low; beets from late sowing would be perfectly nor- 
mal. When we compare the conclusions drawn about 



REQUIREMENTS OF SUGAR BEET SEED. 39 

early sowing just referred to, with practical experi- 
ments in this direction, we find very contradictory 
facts. If early planting is followed by annuals, then 
nearly all beets from seed thus planted should be annu- 
als; but since they are not, the theory advanced is not 
borne out by facts. 

The highest authorities, however, assert that nei- 
ther the depth nor time of sowing has the slightest 
effect on the atavism of the root. It is admitted that 
certain meteorological conditions may have a decided 
influence, due to the disturbance in the natural devel- 
opment of the beet; also certain varieties of beets, with 
close, compact skins, resembling, as it were, the origi- 
nal wild beet, appear to have certain annual tenden- 
cies. Beets which have been frozen and left in the 
ground, suffer in no small degree from the effects of 
cold; their vitality is somewhat diminished, and the 
beet then frequently goes to seed; exactly on this prin- 
ciple may be explained why it is that the higher the 
saccharine quality of the root, the greater its annual 
seeding tendency. Those inferior and hardy beets 
are never annual in their seed formation. Whether the 
size of the seed has or has not an influence, authorities 
do not agree; but many experimenters have asserted 
that the smaller the seed the greater the ten- 
dency to produce annual beets. In direct contradiction 
to this are the assertions of an Austrian agronomist, 
who claims that large seed, maturing very much later 
than the smaller, tends to give annuals. If this hypoth- 
esis be true, it may be explained by the fact that small 
seed produces small and delicate roots, which, as before 
stated, will go to seed abnormally more readily than 
the larger and coarser varieties. 

Some growers say that the occasional occurrence 
of annual beets in their fields is an almost certain indi- 
cation that the average saccharine percentage of the 
crop will be satisfactory. Too much reliance should 



40 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

not be placed on this theory, as the depth at which the 
seed is planted may have its influence. This will evi- 
dently have a retarding effect, corresponding to a loss 
of vitality, which in many cases might result also in 
the formation of annual beets. When the questions of 
selection are not properly looked after in the labora- 
tory, there may be annuals among the mothers chosen, 
and, as a certainty, these will produce seed which in 
turn give a whole generation of annuals. No better 
method exists that renders possible for the observer to 
learn whether the seed growers are what they pretend 
to be, than the number of beets going to seed the year 
of planting. If this is, say, 10 per cent., the advice to 
those interested is to cease all relation with this so- 
called seed grower who has been so misleading in his 
dealings. 

A certain dealer in seed, who had hitherto an 
honorable reputation, delivered seed of which 50 per 
cent, went to seed the first year; he attempted to prove 
by a long series of experiments that his seed was not 
the cause, but there were other conditions. He got 
several sacks which had been left over from the unfor- 
tunate factory owner to whom he had delivered the seed 
in question; these he distributed among many well- 
known farmers and experimental stations in many sec- 
tions of France, and where the climatic conditions were 
very different; the outcome of this investigation was, 
that not more than 1 per cent, were annuals, and the 
year previous one-half of the total amount used was 
shown to be in this abnormal condition. 

Experiments have been made to determine 
whether the degree of maturity of seed has not a cer- 
tain influence. Experiments were made upon seed, large 
and small; after a third generation of annuals it was 
found that 60 per cent, of each gave annuals. Conse- 
quently, it is concluded that the degree of maturity or 
development of seed has very little influence. 



REQUIREMENTS OF SUGAR BEET SEED. 41 

Pagnoul asserts that there is not much differ- 
ence in the percentage of juice in normal bi-annuals 
and annuals; in fact, the purity of the beet is much 
greater in the latter; which is explained by the pass- 
age of many of the alkaline salts, and even phosphoric 
acid, to the upper part of the root, or neck, to meet the 
requirements of seed formation. During the flowering 
period the entire effort of the plant is centred on the 
flower and the resulting fruit. The sugar found in the 
leaves of normal beets is 0.16 per cent, to 0.53 per cent, 
and 1.07 to 0.46 per cent, in annuals. In beets in gen- 
eral, the sugar is formed in the leaves and descends to 
the root; this descent is evidently not so complete in 
annuals. Correnwinder's experiments show that seeds 
from annuals contain very little albumen, which fact 
partly explains why annuals, even after the formation 
of seed, have a normal sugar percentage. The seed 
from annuals yield very poor beets. The cellulary tissue 
is transformed into fibrous, which renders the utiliza- 
tion of such beets almost impossible at the factory, and 
they should always be rejected. All efforts in the direc- 
tion of suppression of the stalk as soon as it appears 
seem to be futile, and such beets for sugar manufac- 
ture would be inferior to roots where the conditions 
of seed formation are allowed to continue. A series 
of experiments were undertaken by Contamine, which 
showed that the expense of the suppression was con- 
siderable; furthermore, the annuals become even more 
fibrous than they were, with the stalk frequently four 
feet in height. 

Some interesting experiments have been made 
with the view to determine the influence of the weight 
of mothers upon the number of roots going to seed 
the first year, and obtained from seed grown under 
same conditions and having same sugar percentage. 
Those beets, weighing about one-half pound each, for 
some unknown reason had the annual tendency to a far 



42 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

greater extent than roots weighing nearly 2 \ lbs. each. 
The annual tendency, then, could be explained by the 
possible want of vitality in very small beets. 

This is strangely in contradiction with what might 
be supposed; for the original annuals from which the 
bi-annuals have been created were evidently large in 
size. Those theories maintaining that early or late 
frosts after sowing have an important influence, have 
not been sufficiently proved to be worthy of any spe- 
cial consideration. That there is a retarding influence 
upon the plant's development when the nights are cold 
soon after planting, seems plausible, but this question 
of annuals is not a retarding but a hastening tendency, 
for in a few months there must be accomplished what 
under ordinary circumstances demands two years. 

One fact is beyond cavil, that seed from annuals 
gives an enormous proportion of annuals, and it is pos- 
sible from a selection of such seed to create a variety 
of beet that goes to seed the first year. Among the 
most interesting experiments to determine if it were 
not possible to do away with annuals entirely, may be 
mentioned that of a second planting of bi-annuals 
which have not flowered after the second year. Such 
roots actually produced seed the third year, and this 
seed gave roots perfectly normal in their sugar per- 
centage, and had far less annual tendencies than 
have beets grown from regular first-class seed. 
Rimpau's experiments showed some years since that 
such beets contained 13.8 per cent, sugar and 82 p. c. 
It is further claimed that it would be possible after a 
period of years, by using the three-year beets, to create 
a variety which would lose entirely its annual tendency. 
One fact is never to be overlooked respecting annuals, 
viz.: If they appear in any great number upon any spe- 
cial field, avoid the roots for mother selecting, even 
within distances of a half-mile, for the chances are that 
the annual tendency will prevail, owing to the possible 
fertilization with pollen from an annual. 



REQUIREMENTS OF SUGAR BEET SEED. 43 

Some authorities declare that the annual beet issue 
is easy to contend with in dry and warm countries, 
such as Italy, Spain, and even in southern France. 
This is in direct contradiction to the writer's observa- 
tion, for it is then of all other times and places that the 
principle of atavism has the most force, the environ- 
ment being favorable for it. It is further claimed that 
this annual tendency was greater in France in 1894 
than it was ever known to be before or since. It was 
also noticed that those annuals showing themselves in 
July and August were not as rich in sugar as when 
they appeared later. It is true that, do what one may, 
the difficulty will always exist and the manufacturer, 
if he look after his own interest, will accept the situa- 
tion and meet it by using such beets in the factory the 
best way he can. Stronger and more powerful cos- 
sette cutting knives would overcome the difficulty. 



< CHAPTER IV. 
Races and Types of Sugar Beets. 

Preliminary Remarks. — The races and types of 
people are so characteristic, that seeing one of them in 
a foreign clime, it is possible to declare to what part of 
the world he belongs, and even after a long sojourn in 
any environment and intermarriage, or whatever com- 
bination is made, the characteristic of the race is trans- 
mitted to the progeny through several generations. 
What is true of man and animals is also true of beets 
in every particular. Even when taken from the mother 
country and planted in an entirely different soil, under 
different conditions, the persistency of the type 
remains, with slight variations; after a time, however, 
through neglect, it disappears. 

It would hardly be possible to give a single exam- 
ple of any vegetable or organic structure, in which this 
principle does not prevail. Just how the races and 
types originated in nature has never been satisfactorily 
determined; one fact is certain, however: Man has it 
within his power to create types, or even races, entirely 
different to those previously existing. An important 
example to the point is the bi-annual domesticated 
sugar beet, as compared with the wild annual root. 
There is an important difference between that which 
man accomplishes and those processes of evolution 
worked out by nature's law. The one starts from a 
form already existing, and the other is the gradual 
change from a protoplastic condition to a perfect race. 

Darwin partly declares that there is one and only 
one method of ameliorating, and that is, not by cross- 
ing races, but by a constant effort to improve the race 

44 



RACES AND TYPES OF SUGAR BEETS. 45 

already in existence. The sugar-beet specialists, hav- 
ing this idea in view, commenced their work in France 
and Germany as early as 1830. At Magdeburg, the 
efforts were mainly centred on the varieties obtained 
trom Erfurt and Quedlinburg seed. The early papers 
read by Vilmorin upon the subject were in 1850, 185 1 
and 1856. 

While a beet grower is able, within his own 
sphere, to produce a special type to which he gives his 
name, the variety always undergoes certain modifica- 
tions by a change of conditions; while these variations 
are not sufficient to materially affect the root after the 
first year's planting, the deterioration is sure to follow, 
unless the blood of the beet is kept constantly replen- 
ished from its original source; roots showing the first 
signs of change must be thrown out. In other words, 
with all the success attained by selection, atavism* is a 
force impossible to overcome. The variations which 
occur with plants left to their own devices are neces- 
sarily very different from those which are the outcome 
of man's efforts; hence, the reason why the labors of a 
conscientious seed grower are incessant and never- 
ending. When the selection is properly looked after, 
the reversion to lower forms seldom occurs; on the con- 
trary, the characteristic of the type sought after 
becomes more and more pronounced. Is it not just 
that a specialist, who furnishes superior beet seed, from 
beets of his own creation, should claim considerably 
more money for his produce, than does an ordinary 
seed grower who gives neither time nor money equiva- 
lent for what he sells, and in the end becomes a 
dealer in bastards, due to the fact that he has resorted 
to variation in the methods of selection, as compared 
with the specialist? 



•Showing the influence of one beet upon another, the experiment 
has been tried of planting side by side, a superior white beet with an 
ordinary red beet. The beets from the seeds of white beet were appar- 
ently of every possible variety, some of these being red, rose, etc., 
and their sugar percentages varying from 7 to 17. 



46 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

Technical Considerations. 

Hereditary and individual characteristics are the 
two main questions to be considered. Heredity- 
gives the characteristics of the race to which it belongs. 
The individual question differs from the race in many 
particulars. The hereditary influence may be divided 
into three divisions: ist, the direct power or force, 
which means that the progeny resemble the nearest 
parent in a direct line; 2d, the conservative atavism, 
which tends to force the resemblance to a whole series 
of individuals, of which the race consists; 3d. the retro- 
grade atavism, which means an influence which tends 
to take after the original parent. If the first and sec- 
ond influences work together, there is a tendency to 
branch out and form an individual type. 

If the individual differs very materially from the 
general characteristics of his race, the direct heredity 
and the atavism will, in a measure, work in opposition 
to each other. The direct heredity is the most pow- 
erful force with which to contend, and while its influ- 
ence mav not for a while be noticed, it is only a ques- 
tion of time before it re-establishes itself on regular 
lines. The atavism, on the other hand, is slow in its 
influence, but it at once exerts its force when there is 
any neglect on the part of the seed specialist. That 
individual types can be created and their characteris- 
tics transmitted through several generations, is an 
absolute fact. Upon general principles, it is far easier 
to transmit a fault than a quality. The individual type 
permits a physical selection and materially helps in the 
chemical or laboratory selection. 

It must never be forgotten that the sugar percent- 
age of a beet is not alone a sure basis for the creation 
of a type! The particular root under examination may 
have had special advantages of soil, plant food, dis- 
tance in row, etc. The individual selection alone is a 
mistake, for the conditions of environment may bring 



RACES AND TYPES OF SUGAR BEETS. 47 

about changes in shape, size of leaves, etc., which are 
overlooked. The hereditary question must not be over- 
looked. All those beets which have undergone any 
change from the starting point must be thrown out; 
under which conditions it is possible, in the end, to 
obtain a type that will be transmitted through several 
generations. There is, respecting this question, an 
issue sometimes to be considered, and that is, the pro- 
duction of a variety to meet the special legislative vari- 
ations of the country where there is a demand. The 
principal races are, however, not interfered with. From 
this fact we draw the conclusion of the importance of 
having beets in the preliminary process of selection 
cultivated under exactly the same conditions; hence, 
the reason the manufacturer can never hope to rival 
the specialist. 

In the Klein-Wanzleben family, for points of 
departure there are new and pronounced characteris- 
tics. During several generations they are either from 
one mother or the outcome of a group of mothers, 
and must be kept entirely separate. The selected 
mother is at first planted; the seed obtained is sown, 
and the resulting roots are selected again and again. 
The selection among this newly created family 
must also continue, so as to keep out all varia- 
tions either in sugar percentage or leaves, etc. It fre- 
quently happens that after considerable trouble and 
expense, a family is created and promises well for the 
future, when the sudden appearanceofa bastard necessi- 
tates abandoning the type. Under these conditions the 
number of real and reliable varieties must be very 
restricted. Those beets which retain their character- 
istics of mothers are kept at the point of departure. 

Standards. — In all experiments of beet selecting it 
is important to have a standard row of comparisons. 
These standards are upon every patch; if variations 
occur in the patch they should vary with the standard. 



48 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

i 

The roots from these experimental patches allow a 
basis of comparisons that should be made in October, 
before the final regular selection. It is most impor- 
tant in the formation of superior types to keep in 
a tabulated form the entire history of the beets which 
promise favorably for the creation of a race, the out- 
come of the individual type. Photographs should be 
taken so as to make doubly sure that the shape is 
retained in the family that follows. The work of plant- 
ing the resulting seed and repeating the selecting from 
the beets obtained, demands a series of years and great 
patience. The seed from each special mother should 
be planted apart; thus forming numerous fields of 
experimental research. When the best type is deter- 
mined upon, the creation of the race can commence 
upon a solid basis. The race obtained through man's 
persistency differs from the natural race; while the 
latter transmits its characteristics with extraordinary 
tenacity for a long period of years, the artificial race is 
very much influenced by any change of conditions. 

Respecting this question, it is interesting to call 
attention to the theory of Prof. Nowoczeck, who, in a 
special work, suggested that the typical Vilmorin be 
crossed with the typical Knauer, and the result would 
possibly be advantageous to each. For, while the 
Electoral is suited to calcareous soil, the Vilmorin has 
other advantages. Well, the certain result which would 
follow will not be any typical beet, but a mixture of 
hybrids, of endless shapes, differing in the color, shape 
of leaves, etc. Even in the Vilmorin selection, which 
commenced some forty years ago, the original parent 
Beta's characteristics are plainly visible, as shown by 
its yellow leaves. Proving that, even with endless 
care, atavism still remains a force with which 
to contend. 

Varieties. — Whatever be the care in selection, 
there is always the necessity of refreshing the original 



RACES AND TYPES OF SUGAR BEETS. 49 

conditions. It is interesting to call attention to the 
same evil effect in intermarriage between cousins, as 
is so much seen or practiced among the royal families 
of Europe; there have followed various disorders and 
bodily weaknesses. In beets the regeneration offers no 
difficulty, owing to the exceptional size of the pollen 
and its abundance during the long flowering period. 
This, combined with the fact that there is but a single 
ovum, its fertilization is always a certainty as com- 
pared with like botanical conditions of other plants. 

The pollen has its absolute effect only after it has 
left the anthers; hence, the reason why the hybridization 
is most common and becomes one of the greatest diffi- 
culties to contend with during windy seasons. If these 
varieties which are of so frequent occurrence be 
allowed to continue,* the ultimate result will be a very 
poor seed, possessing very little germinating power. 
The remedy consists in crossing with better types, 
which must belong to the same race; otherwise, hybrids 
would be created and these possessing special atavis- 
mistic tendencies, the difficulties would be greater than 
before. Knauer gives an important example in this 
question by declaring that the Ameliorated White 
Imperial may be used to regenerate the Klein- Wanzle- 
ben and vice versa; the latter, to regenerate the former 
for the simple reason that the Wanzleben race is the 
same as the Knauer, they having a common parent. 
In other words, it is the main essential to get a pure 
ultimate race; if the creation is a bastard the progeny 
will be bastards. 

The Knauer Imperial variety, created in 1850, 
held its own for many years, and was once, without 
doubt, the best variety in existence. Then came the 



*An example may be given of Derrombesque's experience in 
France. His main object was to create a superior beet; he crossed an 
ordinary bardy beet with an acclimated Silesian. From the resulting 
seed, he obtained, apparently, a hardy beet rich in sugar; after the 
third planting the Silesian characteristics had nearly disappeared 
and there was an absolute reversion to lower forms. 



50 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

Knauer Improved Imperial; this was later on super- 
seded by the White Ameliorated of Vilmorin. But 
Knauer, himself, was not satisfied with his results and 
started with a French beet cultivated in the north; 
from it, the race known as Electoral was created. This 
had an advantage which the original types had not, 
viz.: It would flourish in soils of ordinary depths, while 
the Imperial demanded special conditions. As the 
origin of these two beets is different, one cannot be 
used to refresh the other. 

Even Vilmorin, during his early methods of selec- 
tion, made (as some consider) an evident error by using 
the Mangold beet as a means of giving a new life to 
the beet that needed to be refreshed. At the present 
day there are writers who argue that the Mangold was 
the starting-point for all existing varieties. It 
would be very difficult to lay down any special period 
at which the regeneration should be practiced; but it 
is certainly not desirable to wait until there are indica- 
tions of the degeneration of the type of beets under 
observation. Many practical experts claim that two 
to three years' limit is a satisfactory basis upon which 
to work. 

The regeneration, as adopted by some growers, is 
effected by importing from a distant clime a beet about 
the same and of the same race type, as the one hav- 
ing proved satisfactory. The seed of the latter and 
former are mixed, planting fellows in the regular way, 
and as they are sufficiently close, their influence will 
be felt; or better still, plant each seed separately and 
select mothers from the resulting beets, plant these in 
the same field, and there will be an interchange of pol- 
len resulting in the creation of the expected variety. 
However, this operation, while apparently easy, offers 
many difficulties in practice. Many similar examples 
from recent practical experience could be given, but 
the question is, Do they offer all the advantages claim- 



RACES AND TYPES OF SUGAR BEETS. 51 

ed? Some growers alternate between Germany, 
France, Belgium, and Holland, in which countries the 
climates differ. The mothers are carried in boxes, 
keeping them so that they will not be bruised. Under 
these conditions there are constantly new varieties cre- 
ated, and the question becomes so complicated that 
the original types are lost sight of. 

However, with certain care, satisfactory results 
may be obtained; in some of our early writings we 
suggested what might be accomplished in the United 
States by importing beets from Germany, after hav- 
ing selected a suitable soil for their planting. This 
plan seemed preferable to that of sending seed to a 
foreign clime and then bringing back the resulting 
beets to their native soil for their second year's growth. 
We can hardly agree with Walkhoff, who proposes to 
improve the quality of a beet by sending it or the seed 
from a warm to a colder latitude. In conclusion, we 
would say that for many years an idea continued to 
prevail that the best way to obtain superior beets was 
by a careful system of preparing the soil, by the use of 
special fertilizers, etc. 

While all these may be, in their way, very essen- 
tial, they are of secondary importance when compared 
with the necessity of sowing superior seed from the 
start, and without which careful agricultural methods 
are of little avail. However, upon the same soil and 
under exactly the same conditions, there is an enor- 
mous variation in the sugar percentage; this may be 7 
per cent, on the one hand and 19 per cent, on the other. 
The explanation of this is simply, that while every seed 
has a tendency to resemble its nearest parent, yet, at the 
same time, as explained in the foregoing, it has a cer- 
tain affinity for an ancestor, more or less distant, and 
this retrograde atavism declares itself when least 
expected, when in the hands of a novice who uses seed 
obtained from dealers that make claims which mislead 



52 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

the purchaser. The identity and value of a seed can 
only be determined after its having been put to a prac- 
tical test upon the field. 



CHAPTER V.— PART I. 

Selection of Beets with a View to Seed. 

Preliminary Observations. — To obtain a beet rich 
in quality, yet giving a satisfactory yield, is a far more 
intricate problem than many of the would-be beet-seed 
growers seem at first to realize. The details of selec- 
tion, if properly carried out, can never become very 
remunerative, owing to the expense, and must there- 
fore be, within reasonable limits, a labor of love. A 
visit to the laboratories where thirty to forty people 
are employed, and the details connected with the work, 
not only from a chemical but a physical standpoint, 
would discourage many from the start, and even if 
superior seed should sell for twice the sum that it now 
does, it would hardly be an operation that one could 
depend upon for a living. If the details of selection 
could be made once for all, and if the seed obtained 
would retain that degree of excellence through gener- 
ations to come, the question would be a simple one; 
but, unfortunately, the tendency of the beet being con- 
stantly to go backward rather than forward, the qual- 
ity depends upon pains taken in the selection, and, if 
neglected, the roots would contain very little sugar and 
be worthless for sugar extraction. Most seed growers, 
if the yearly selections are neglected, rely more on their 
past renown than upon their reputation that is to come. 
There cannot be a shadow of doubt that many of the 
existing methods for beet selection are fallacious. M. 
Legras starts in on a new basis, which anyone without 



SELECTING BEETS FOR SEED. 53 

money and property at his disposal could not think 
of attempting. 

One need only read Darwin's work on the 
selection of species to realize the wisdom of M. 
Legras's method. A child, for example, resembles his 
father and mother more than his grandfather and 
grandmother. In other words, our own characteris- 
tics are more pronounced in our own children than in 
our grandchildren, and the further they are removed 
from the original parent, the greater will be the differ- 
ence between the progeny and the ancestor. True, 
there is a constant tendency toward reversion; but this 
is only a tendency and not an actuality unless contin- 
ued through long periods of years. What rules can 
be evolved from the animal kingdom must generally 
apply to the vegetable; hence, the reason why it is 
maintained, and has been frequently proved, that the 
true and only method of selection with the view to seed 
production is, that the seed comes directly from the 
mothers that have been actually selected in the labo- 
ratory. It is customary among seed growers to plant 
the mothers selected the following spring, the seed 
obtained being not sold, but sown with a view to 
obtain beets which furnish seed for the trade. Such 
being the case, it becomes evident that all beets exist- 
ing grown from seed supplied by dealers, with the 
exception of M. Legras's, are grandchildren of selected 
mothers. The new plan proposed was to sell seed 
obtained from the beets selected in the laboratory. It 
was difficult to put into practice, and at first, on the 
Besny farm, there were only 50 or 60 acres devoted to 
this special purpose. On the other hand, in 1896 the 
yield of seed of one variety was 500,000 lbs. 

Physical Selection of Mothers. 

Preliminary Remarks. — When one attempts to 
compare the physical attributes of mothers and their 



54 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

influence upon their progeny among the higher classes 
of the world's creation with those of the lower forms, 
we find a resemblance which is simply appalling. A 
lock of white hair, or an ungrown tooth, may continue 
through hundreds of generations; that the talents or 
special characteristics may jump a generation or more, 
every one knows, but this may be a freak of nature* 
and is certainly the exception. What applies to man 
is also applicable to sugar beets. Selection according to 
exterior signs only may, perchance, lead to excellent 
results, but it is not desirable to put too much faith in 
such methods. The real and only road to success is 
a continued selection through all times, and not for a 
period of years. An ultimate race or variety of sugar 
beet is the outcome, not of physical selection alone, but 
of physical and chemical combined. Nature fre- 
quently accomplishes this in another manner; for 
example, in fever districts. On the banks of the Ama- 
zon, only the stronger live; the weaker disappear, the 
outcome of which is a race that is not affected by the 
local environment; and if we examine into the anteced- 
ents of these special individuals, we would find that a 
physical foundation has been laid, and the good effects 
are realized years later. 

Legras's Physical Selection — and Discussion as to 
Other Methods Based Upon Small Beets, etc. 

As previously explained, in sugar-beet selection, 
the object is not so much to obtain a root rich in sugar, 
but one that is regular in shape, and offers no diffi- 
culty in cleaning. Hence, the starting-point in phys- 
ical selection, is to have a regular elongated beet, one 
that presents no difficulty during slicing at the factory, 
and retains its tip end. How many examples could be 
given of beets rich in sugar, but irregular in shape, and, 
therefore, the slicing poorly done! The cossettes in 
the diffusion battery do not give satisfaction; the juices 



SELECTING BEETS FOR SEED. 



55 




Fig. 24. A typical Legras Sugar Beet. 



56 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

arc impure, owing to the dirt, etc., that have not been 
eliminated during the process of washing. If the manu- 
facturer purchases such beets, as the farmer claims he 
must, owing to a binding contract, he gets more sugar, 
apparently, in the beet, but this sugar costs more to- 
extract than it is worth, and, consequently, there fol- 
lows a money loss in the end. It is much to be regret- 
ted that, as a rule, the manufacturer and seed producer 
are two separate individuals. Sometimes, however, the 
seed grower is also a beet-sugar manufacturer; among 
others we could mention Legras, in France, and 
Wanzleben, in Germany. The purchaser of such seed 
derives a benefit from the care given to create and 
maintain a variety of beet that is destined to give heavy 
sugar yields at the factory, and satisfactory returns at 
the farm. 

The Legras beet has only French antecedents, 
straight leaves with very pronounced nerves. The 
selection on the field is done with scrupulous care; 
the persons having this work in charge have been 
trained through a series of years, and have strict orders 
to adhere to regular rules. Some years ago, not 
more than one beet in twelve was sent to the labora- 
tory to be analyzed; now the selection is an easy mat- 
ter, for the roots that do not possess the physical requi- 
sites are the exception. The salt-bath selection made 
by many seed growers is on a basis having the sugar 
percentage only in view, and it is misleading, for a 
large proportion of such roots are rejected upon 
chemical examination; hence, it is labor lost. 
From what has just been said, the field of selec- 
tion is the starting-point to success, and whatever 
be the exterior characteristics, the seed is sure 
to transmit them. However, there are excep- 
tions, and a beet that promises favorably from exterior 
signs may be rejected after having been analyzed, 
weather, soil, etc., having had some mysterious effect. 



SELECTING BEETS FOR SEED. 57 

The type of Legras beet for which general preference 
at Besny is given, is shown in the engraving (Fig. 24). 
The shape is regular, with lateral depressions, and it is 
readily harvested. It is important to note that there 
are several preliminary selections. When the final 
roots are determined upon, they are placed in circular 
piles, with necks and leaves on the outside. As soon 
as possible, the leaves are removed, and a still further 
selection follows. 

The roots selected for mothers weigh between 400 
to 900 grams (14 oz. to 2 lbs.) each. Many seed grow- 
ers never use mothers weighing more than 300 grams 
each, but this is evidently a mistake, as has been many 
times proved by the results. However, there is ample 
authority for asserting that when the chemical selec- 
tict has been properly looked after, it does not mat- 
ter whether the beets are small or large, provided the 
shape has been well considered. A German authority 
digues that as mothers are only an intermediate 
between the seed and the soil, there is no advantage 
in using large beets, as the plant food required is taken 
from the soil. Some growers, as previously men- 
tioned, are most enthusiastic over the small motl er 
theory, and roots destined for this purpose are culti- 
vated at distances of four inches apart, and in rows 
eight inches from one another, 100,000 beets beingthus 
obtained to the acre — none of which would weigh more 
than three-quarters of a pound. Prof. Marek's exper- 
iments, extending over several years, showed that there 
was very little advantage, if any, in using small moth- 
ers for seed production. The small-beet method offers 
certain advantages of economy not to be overlooked; 
the beets may be rapidly harvested, occupy less space 
in silos, cost less for transportation, and it is possible 
to replant them on a field which has been used the 
same year for another crop. 

It is claimed, also, that small beets have stems 



58 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

which mature early and give greater yields of seed.* 
Without doubt, the type of such roots, owing to their 
size, is very uncertain, and frequently the object in 
view, viz., that of creating a race, is not attained; fur- 
thermore, the conditions not being perfectly normal, 
the quality is sure to suffer in the long run. The for- 
mation of numerous stalks of very uncertain height and 
development is more frequent on large than on small 
mothers. On the other hand, when the latter are 
used, there are many central high stalks, and few lat- 
eral ones; they all hold their own, and do not lean over 
on the soil for support when the seed is formed, as is 
the case with large mothers. It seems self-evident 
that large mothers cannot be desirable. They may 
occasionally contain considerable sugar, but this is an 
exception and not the rule. If seed growers are not 
careful, they will certainly be misled on this question. 
The two-pound weight, as suggested by some, is, from 
the writer's standpoint, a very dangerous limit. At the 
Klein-Wanzleben seed-growing farm, where they have 
6500 acres devoted to beets, preference is given to 
roots weighing 700 to 800 grams (1.5 to 1.7 lbs.) and 
four pounds is not uncommon. Beets weighing but 
one pound are looked upon as being abnormal and 
worthless for seeding purposes. 



•Classification according to weight 



Grams. 



600 to 650 
650 to 700 
750 to 800 



Each variety of 50 grams demands a different and separate classi- 
fication. Theseigroups are analyzed separately. 

As regards this question of weight, it has been 
suggested that an average be taken of several thousand 
selected roots, and, once for all, settle the question, and 
greatly aid in the physical selection. It is evident 



*See chapter ''Special Original Methods for the Production of 
Superior Seed," where the question of small beets is discussed in 
full detail. 



SELECTING BEETS FOR SEED. 59 

from what has been said in the foregoing, that there i? 
much contradiction, and the Besny types, which are 
certainly not of the small kind, give very superior 
results. This question of weight of mothers and the 
yield of beets from the resulting seed is a paradox, 
practical experiments having proved that they may 
weigh one-fifth of a pound, or 2^ lbs, and yet the 
yield to the acre of beets from the seed in each case will 
be about the same. However, it is far better to be 
within rational limits. 

As regards the physical selection on the fields, it 
must be remembered that there are two kinds of selec- 
tion; the one on an average beet field intended for the 
factory, and the other from beets which have been 
cultivated from selected mothers ; greater care is neces- 
sary in the latter than in the former case. It is a great 
mistake to adhere to the practice of sowing such beets 
very near together so as to dwarf their size; better let 
the development continue under normal conditions. 
Under general principles, whatever be the physical 
method selected, under no circumstances is it advis- 
able to use a beet which, during its early stages, has 
been attacked by insects. These ravages always pro- 
duce a retarding effect upon the development of the 
root, from which it never recovers. 

Selection by Appearance of Leaves. 

The value of physical selection based upon appear- 
ance of leaves, has more importance than is generally 
attributed to this mode. In Russia it is maintained 
that sugar beets in a fine healthy condition, having pale 
leaves and changing color early in the season, are riper 
and contain more sugar than those roots with dark 
green leaves. At Knauer's, the argument is just the 
reverse. They prefer a dark, rather than a light green. 
Furthermore, beets with reddish leaves are of a poorer 
quality than those with pale green leaves. The sugar 



60 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

percentage of beets seems to increase with the num- 
ber of leaf-circles. Eight to ten is considered a good 
indication. The wrinkles of the leaves seem also to be 
a quality characteristic; the greater the number of 
wrinkles, the higher the saccharine percentage of the 
root. In normal beets, when the leaves are of an 
oblong shape rather than round, so to speak, the roots 
are richest in sugar. 

When the leaves are very pointed the beets 
to which they belong are never very rich in sugar, 
and in some cases denote a certain malady of the 
root. Very few of such beets are ever noticed on 
the field. While a luxuriant vegetation and a 
fine green surface seem essential for sugar elabora- 
tion, practical experience shows that the soil and 
excessive use of a nitric fertilizer have important influ- 
ences and would, in most cases, be very misleading. 
Iron, for example, is said to influence the intensity of 
the green coloring. Beets with outspread leaves, cov- 
ering considerable area, are generally richer in sugar 
than those roots with upright leaves, where the sun has 
great difficulty in penetrating. 

However, on this question experts very much dif- 
fer, and the mistake they frequently make is, that the 
samples they select for comparison are not alike; for 
care should be given that the beets compared be at the 
same distance from adjoining beets in rows. 

Marek's analyses on thirty beets gave the follow- 
ing result: 






Av. weight of beet. . 

Density 

Dry Substance , 

Polarization 

Non sugar 

Purity Coeff 

Proportional value. 



Standing 


Lew- 


Leaves. 


Leaves. 


0.74 


0.55 


6° 


6.5° 


14.6 


158 


13.00 


14.4 


1.69 


1.4 


88.47 


914 


11.5 


13.1 



The quality of beets seems to increase with the 
number of leaf-circles. In this respect Pellet has made 



SELECTING BEETS FOR SEED. 



61 



some important observations, showing that there is a 
relation between the number of leaves and the saccha- 
rine quality of the beet. 



Vilmorin seed. 



Per Cent. Sugar 


Number of 




in Beets 


Leaves 




15.7 


42 




14.8 


39 




13.8 


31 




12.2 


23 




11.7 


19 





This appears to be also true for the weight of 
leaves; with various kinds of seed the results were 
as follows: 



Vilmorin seed 

Senior Legrand seed \ 

Various seed < 

I 

I 



Weight of leaves for 


Sugar 




100 lbs. beets 


Per cent. 




56 lbs. 


14.5 




33 " 


13.3 




20 " 


11.8 




58 " 


15.4 




63 «• 


15.2 




52 " 


14.1 




62 " 


14.7 




31 " 


13.3 




26 " 


18.8 





These results would tend to show that there is to 
be found in leaves some excellent and practical means 
for physical selection. At Madgeburg, beets that are 
selected for mothers have but few outer leaves, and 
these are flat and grow near the ground; at their cen- 
tres they are in a cluster, and their general tint is bright 
green; they are not spotted or fringed with red. 

Knauer gives preference to those roots which 
have a central cluster of leaves arranged in a sort of 
horizontal bouquet; the leaves are of an average size, 
with rather fragile borders, the outer leaves being large 
and bent over. He places great stress on the 
physical selection based upon the leaves. Wychinski 
declares that the best beets have small delicate leaves. 
The nerves on leaves also appear to play an important 
role. Large nerves in the centre of the leaf, and with 
latent nerves which do not intercross, are beets very 
inferior to those with delicate leaves, three central 



62 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

nerves and partially developed latent nerves ; such roots 
will generally contain 15 to 18 per cent, sugar. The 
observations in this direction are destined to lead to 
excellent results. It is generally found desirable to 
throw out all beets having large or small, deformed or 
badly shaped leaves. 

While Kneifel, in his special study on beet leaves, 
declares that there is no relation between the shape of 
beet leaves and the sugar percentage of the root, Doerst- 
ling asserts that his observations tend to show that the 
size of a leaf is of very great importance; those beets 
having leaves of 316.7 sq. c. m. contain 14.2 per cent, 
sugar, while others with leaves of areas of 170 sq. c. m. 
polarize only 13.5 per cent. This seems rational to us; 
furthermore, we are convinced that large leaves help 
the beet very considerably to attain its full development. 
This leaf growth is most rapid during the first month 
after planting; the leaves that follow are smaller and 
none of the latest formed appear to remain more than 
six weeks, and as the size of these decreases, their num- 
ber seems to increase. All these questions of shape, 
wrinkles, nerves, fringed, etc., should be noted by- 
sugar-beet seed specialists, and correct notes made, 
for these items are of great importance in the selec- 
tion. Sach botanical considerations are of great help, 
for after many years of constant attention, one can 
create an individual type through this assistance, com- 
bined with other requisites, which shall be very 
thoroughly examined in chapters that follow in this 
present writing. 

Exterior Signs as Indications of Quality. 

Those who have observed the almost certain rela- 
tions existing between the exterior signs indicating 
qualities or defects of organism, both in men and in 
animals, will not hesitate to admit that the entire vege- 
table kingdom is controlled by similar laws. Vilmorin 



SELECTING BEETS FOR SEED. 63« 

says that the shape and general appearance of a beet 
which has attained its normal development should be 
considered before any other selection; beets of irregu- 
lar shape should not be considered worthy of attention. 
In selecting the shape that is to be the ultimate type, 
it is important to have it almost as regular as that 
made in a mold. The uniformity will be to the ulti- 
mate advantage of the manufacturer, who constantly 
seeks a raw material of the same condition of texture 
and composition, thus very much facilitating the proc- 
ess of manipulation in the factory. What is true of 
products in general is also true of the beet in particu- 
lar; its juices, when regular in composition, simplify 
the many phases of purification. The farmer has also 
better returns for his crops. It must be said, however, 
that even Vilmorin during his early selection entirely 
neglected the question of shape or variety. The roots 
could have red or green necks, with regular or irregu- 
lar leaves; the main and only issue for the selection 
was the sugar percentage, upon which basis, even with 
the so-called ameliorated, all kinds, all varieties, were 
once to be found — no individual type or shape. In 
other words, the originals of Vilmorin roots were very 
irregular and the question of forked beets was soon 
the subject of general discussion. It is evident that in 
many cases a forked beet is richer in sugar than is a 
long tapering root, for it may be considered as two 
beets joined. These irregular roots are difficult to har- 
vest and almost impossible to work at the factory. 

The external appearance of a good or superior 
beet is long and conical, flattened on the sides growing^ 
entirely beneath the surface. There should always be 
two spiral depressions starting from the neck, 
filled with a hairy growth; the skin may be white, gray, 
slightly green or rose, and rather thick and rough sur- 
face. The texture of the beet should be hard, break- 
ing easily, and giving no juice unless under pressure.. 



64 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

The central pivot should be hard and very pronounced, 
the fibro-vasculary tissue very well developed and the 
concentric rings not more than 12 m. m. in width. The 
beets not forked and with small necks. The juice 
should taste either salty or sweet. 

On many previous occasions attention has been 
directed to the influence of soil, fertilizer, seed, etc., 
upon the final shape of the beet. We know, for 
example, that if the soil has been thoroughly plowed, 
roots have greater facility of growth, attain greater 
length and grow less above ground than when the 




Fig. 25. 
upper surface only is at their disposal. If the sub-soil 
offers too great a resistance, the portion above ground 
is as great as that beneath the surface, and from a man- 
ufacturer's point of view, very inferior roots are the 
result. A beet in growing, if of superior quality, in 
its desire to obtain the requisite plant food, will sur- 
round, as it were, a small stone, which may have 
been an obstruction to its descending development. 

The farmer, in delivering his crop at the factory, 
cannot be expected to select only those advantageous 
to the manufacturer, regardless of his own interests. 



SELECTING BEETS FOR SEED. 65 

But what he can do is to learn the best shape of a 
sugar beet, and endeavor to produce such form. 
Frequently, farmers grow sugar beets from seed they 
purchase,* and the roots prove to be of an inferior 
quality. The truth, if plainly told, is simply that 
the supposed sugar beet was a sort of hybrid rutabaga, 
containing but 3 to 4 per cent, of sugar, instead of 12 
to 13 per cent., as would have resulted if there had not 
been misconception of some kind. The good and bad 
shapes for beets are shown geometrically herewith. 
Suppose an axis, A B (Fig. 25), and a line, c d, form- 




fig. 26. 
ing an acute angle with the same; evidently, if this 
revolves it will depict a cone, which surface is the type 
of the tip end of average beets for sugar manufacture. 
Again, if a curve d B (Fig. 26) is substituted for 
the line, c d, we shall have a different surface, convex 
in its character, and the type of the mangel-wurzel, 
rutabaga, etc., not advantageous for sugar extraction. 
If the curve, d b, (Fig. 2j) is convex, and we suppose 



* An important example of this is the experience at the Rome fac- 
tory, where many of the beets were red, had low sugar percentage* 
and were worthless for the purpose intended. 



66 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

the same conditions as previously mentioned, we 
shall have a concave surface, representing the tip 
end of beets containing 15 or 16 per cent, of 
sugar. The necks in the latter case are short 
and small, but in the previous example, long and 
thick. It is not well to confound a hairy surface on the 
outside of sugar beets with small adhering roots, as 
frequently found. They both, it is true, have the same 
object in view — extracting from the soil the maximum 
amount of plant food; but small adhering radicles are 
frequently an abnormal condition of growth, while the 




Fig. 27. 
hairy portions are the necessary and essential means of 
plant or root absorption. During the processes of 
harvesting, washing, etc., the hairy portions disappear 
almost entirely before the roots are sent to the sheer; 
while adhering radicles are generally sufficiently large 
to resist any operation to which they may be sub- 
mitted, and subsequently, as previously explained, lead 
to inferior results in the slicing process. 

In regard to the depression and hairy growth, it 
is interesting to note that it is generally on the side 
where there is the greatest distance between roots. 



SELECTING BEETS FOR SEED. 



67 





Ball. 



Pear. 



Heart. 



Cone. 







Olive. 



Large Neck. Small Neck. 



Short. 




Pivoting. Slender. Forked 

Shapes of Beets. 



68 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

If the distance between beets is very much the same as 
between rows, the tendency then is for the hairy 
growth to form on all sides. Dubrunfaut declared that 
there is torsional action of the beet during its devel- 
opment, and the movement follows the sun. Mehay 
says that the hairy beets contain 3.5 per cent, dry sub- 
stance; for lateral root tissues this is 4.5 per cent. 

The shapes of most of the existing varieties come 
under the heads given by Knauer in the classifica- 
tion on the preceding page. 

Many of these shapes have now become obsolete. 
The Silesian, or pear type, for a long period of years 
held its own, but is now no longer in vogue. The 
olive, also, had its day. The very long, pivoting types 
have generally a high polarization; however, the juice 
percentage is not what it should be, and, furthermore, 
their harvesting is most difficult. 

Desprez contends that there is a positive relation 
between the quality of roots and the hardness of their 
skin. We are inclined to believe the assertion, as it 
has been practically demonstrated. Many of our read- 
ers, who have seen Desprez's skin classification, may 
possibly be astonished at this curious theory; but we 
know that the larger the root, the lower its saccharine 
quality; hence, large beets are more watery, with tis- 
sues more open than are those of small roots, with a 
corresponding hardness of skin. Leplay has fre- 
quently argued that the quality of a beet depends 
largely upon the amount of calcareous substance com- 
bined in its tissues, tending also to lessen the propor- 
tional decrease in sugar as the root increases in size. 
Here we have a kind of explanation of the hardness of 
skin previously mentioned; and the reason shown why 
it throws a certain amount of calcareous product on 
the surface of the clay loam. 



CHAPTER V.— PART II. 

Chemical Selection of Mothers. 

History of Chemical Selection. — While the phys- 
ical selection of beets with the view to seed production 
has its importance, it is always considered secondary to 
the chemical selection, either in laboratory or on the 
ndd. Dubrunfaut was among the first to insist upon 
some method for the selection of roots rich in sugar; it 
was he, who, in 1825, declared that, volume for 
volume, the heaviest beets were the richest in sugar. 
The roots were weighed in air and water, and the cal- 
culated density thus obtained was sufficient for the 
selection of roots that were subsequently to furnish 
seed to the sugar manufacturers. The fact is, as before 
stated, France during a period of years was the centre 
for superior beet seed; Russia, Germany and Austria 
imported their seed from French growers. In 1850, 
Vilmorin published his pamphlet on the proposition to 
increase the sugar percentage of beets. However, 
some years prior to this, other issues were discussed, 
with considerable foresight in regard to the possible 
future. Baths of saline water were used, the classifica- 
tion being based upon the strength of the bath — the 
roots were well washed before immersion, and those 
sinking were kept for mothers. In justice to 
Vilmorin, it is interesting to note that, in 1852, he real- 
ized that his method was not exact. Why the salt 
water baths are objectionable will be subsequently 
explained. It is now generally admitted that the actual 
s-- Section of beets with the view to seed production, 
as now accepted, was in 1856, for then, for the first time, 

69 



70 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

the question of creating a new variety was discussed. 
Numerous methods having the same object in view 
were subsequently proposed, and these may be clas- 
sified as follows: ist, Density of the entire root; 2d, 
density of a piece of beet; 3d, density of the juice of 
the beet; 4th, estimation of sugar in the juice by chem- 
ical methods; 5th, estimation of sugar in the beet by 
means of the polariscope, in connection with which 
have been proposed: (a), the alcoholic method; (b), hot 
and cold water methods; (c), cold water, using a special 
rasp, with subsequent weighing of the pulps, (d), cold 
water, with a special sampler, without weighing. 

It is important to pass in review these various 
methods: ist, Density of the entire root. The discus- 
sions relating to this subject extended over several 
years. The baths at first had densities which varied 
from 10 to 6° Be. Those beets sinking and of a close 
t xture were kept for seed. The discovery by 
Vilmorin of a frequent air cavity in the neck of beets 
made evident the fallacy of the method he was using, 
and besides there is another objection not to be over- 
looked, viz., the densities of the baths are not constant, 
because after a short time dirt, etc., adhering to the 
roots, and subsequently remaining in the tanks, will 
considerably alter the results, notwithstanding the care 
bestowed in washing the beets. 

The Knauer method for mechanically dividing the 
beets into piles, according to their weight, for some 
time attracted considerable attention. This had cer- 
tainly a great advantage over the mode previously 
adopted, as it was hardly possible to determine the 
weight of all the beets on the field before sending them 
to the factory. Furthermore, it was evident that if the 
roots were left on the ground after harvesting, they 
would have a certain amount of moisture which would 
undoubtedly alter the results. The difficulty of properly 
removing the leaves was evidently another source of 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 



71 



error which had been too frequently overlooked. It 
was, however, recommended that they be twisted off 
rather than be submitted to a slicing process, which 
had led to many irregularities in the results. Instead 
of a salt water bath, molasses was used as a medium. 
Beets weighing about i^ lbs were thrown into it, 
there being several baths of increasing densities, which 
allowed a certain classification. While the method 
has been abandoned for years, there are many experts 
who still insist upon the weight being a basis of selec- 
tion, for when the weight of beets increases, the density 
of juice, total dry substances, the sugar percentage, the 
purity coefficient and the proportional value decrease.* 



Weight, ki los 

Density of juicet 

Dry substance, per cent. 

Sugar, per cent 

Noil sugar, per cent 

Purity coefficient 

Proportional value 



Small 



.222 

6.2° 
15.139 
13.49 

1.64 
89.1 
12. 



Medium 



0.410 
5.9° 

14.428 

12.56 
1.86 

87. 

10.8 



Larire 



0.795 

6° 
14.666 
12.14 

2.53 
82.7 

9.9 



Very L'rge 



1.497 

5.8° 
14.190 
11.65 

2.54 
82.1 

9.5 



The analyses of iooo beets in the Desprez labora- 
tory gave the following results: 





Beets 


W 


eigli 


ts 


on Aver. 


kilos 


Sugar % kilo contains 




27 








0.533 




11 to 12 




23 








0528 




12 to 13 




84 








0.621 




13 to 24 




226 








0.603 




14 to 15 




252 








0.523 




15 to 16 




270 








0.496 




16 to 17 




106 








0.477 




17 to 18 




12 








0.370 




18 to 20 




1000 















From which we conclude that while small beets, 
as a general rule, contain more sugar than large, 
this is by no means invariable. For in this list it may 
be noticed that the average weight of 226 beets was 
0.603 kilo and averaged 14 to 15 per cent, sugar; roots 



influence of the weight of beets on their saccharine quality (see 
Z fiir Zuckerindustrie in Bohmen Jan. 1884). See for more important 
detail the work of Marek. 

tThe decrees given here are according to the French — To convert 
into specific gravity prefix 10 and remove the decimal point two places 
to the left, e g : 6.2°=i.062 specific gravity. 



72 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

very much lighter, the average weight being 0.533 kilo, 
contained only 11 to 12 per cent. Vilmorin, during his 
early efforts at selection, introduced the method of tak- 
ing from the beet a cylindrical piece with an instru- 
ment similar to an apple-corer. 

2d. Density of a Piece of Beet. — That the sample 
could be taken from the beet without changing its keep- 
ing qualities, providing that the hole made be at once 
filled with sand, was an important progress compared 
with the old methods. The cylinders of, Blount 
were placed in a series of vases and filled with sugar 
and water; these solutions contained 7, 8, 9, 10 to 15 
per cent, of sugar. 

The selection of roots based on the density of the 
core taken from the beet continued to be in vogue for 
many years, the baths subsequently used having densi- 
ties of 105.0, 106.0, 107.0 and 108.0;* the small cylinders 
were frequently cut into four pieces. Dervaux-Ibled 
devised a method of selection, using saline baths in 
tanks of much smaller dimensions than those previ- 
ously described. It had been noticed that if a sample 
of root be taken perpendicular to the axis, at about 
one-third the height from the neck, its density would be 
one degree to 1.2 degrees less than the juice. If the 
samples were floated in a saline bath of 106, the con- 
clusion then was that the beet had a density of 107 
to 107.2. The roots were first selected on the fields by 
exterior signs alone. The small vases, containing only 
200 to 300 grams of salt water, were placed in numer- 
ous hands, which allowed 3000 to 4000 beets to be 
selected per diem. The evident advantage over the 
whole-beet method was, that the roots were not neces- 
sarily cleansed or the leaves removed, while the econ- 
omv of time and labor was considerable. The baths 



♦The above manner of writing the densities instead of placing the 
decimal after the first figure, was t Tint adopted by those who were 
working by that special method of selection. 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 73 

could be kept at almost constant density. The Dervaux 
method of classification was, that beet samples floating 
in the bath of 105 density were rejected and those 
which sank in that of 105.5 were subsequently sent to 
the laboratory for further examination. On the other 
hand, those which were of a density of more than 105, 
and yet less than 105.5 were siloed and planted the fol- 
lowing year and gave seed for the trade. The roots to 
which preference was given weighed from 700 to 
900 grams. 

Respecting the Dervaux method, we would say 
that the results obtained by it are more reliable than 
by the Vilmorin system, where several errors exist, the 
most important being the effect of endosmosis of the 
solution, and the atmospheric effect produced upon the 
small cylinder in passing from one vase to another, 
a series of solutions of different strength being used. 

The other errors were noticed by Champonnois, 
and were due to a certain volume of gas contained in 
the tissues of the piece of beet, or in the entire root. 
The volume of these gases varies from 9 to 50 c. c* 
per kilo of beets. Its composition is. nitrogen, 63; car- 
bonic acid, 37. The following table shows that the vol- 
ume of these gases varies considerably. 



Density of beet 




Volume of gas 




in salt water. 


Density of juice. 


per kilo. 




1016 


1045 


26 c. c. 




1012 


1048 


36 c. c. 




1005 


1(140 


35 c. c. 




1012 


1050 


32 C. C. 





Vibran made a new departure, and instead of 
taking the cylinder from the beet, he took the density 
of the tip end as a basis of estimation. Rimpau 
showed by a series of well-conducted experiments that 
the method was not reliable. Several beets which were 
examined sank in a saline solution of 104.8; their sugar 

*Dubrnnfant admits that it may reach 113 c. c. per kilo of beets. 
Opinions very much differ respecting the composition of the gas; M. 
A. Heintz declares that it consists; of nitrogen, M.8; carbonic acid, 32.8; 
oxygen, 0.35; and the volume varies from 130 to 150 c. c. per kilo of beets. 



74 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

percentage varying from 11.98 to 14.3; average 13.4; 
beets with tips of lower density also gave 13 per cent, 
sugar. The fallacy of the method was also demon- 
strated by Marek, who tested tips from beets contain- 
ing 9 to 15 per cent, sugar and they all floated. Not- 
withstanding this fact, Dippe Brothers, the well-known 
seed producers of Germany, adopted the tip-end 
method as a basis of their selection. The end was 
broken off and immersed in a saline bath of 6}° Be. If 
it floated, the beet would be thrown out; if it sank, it 
would be placed in a second bath, 7-J Be; if sinking 
again, a third bath would be used, etc. A fact appar- 
ently overlooked by them, is, that during the period 
that beets remain siloed, the tip end is frequently the 
first to undergo organic changes. Consequently, if 
the end is not examined, either by polariscope or in the 
series of baths just mentioned, at once after harvesting, 
it will be found that its sugar percentage will be very 
much too low to be a safe guide. 

In conclusion to what has been said in the fore- 
going, there appears to exist a relation between the 
juice of the beets sinking and those which floated, the 
former being the heavier. Or, more clearly speaking, 
just as Mehay and Scheibler say, there must be a pro- 
portion between roots and their juices, and investiga- 
tions in this direction showed that it is desirable to 
take the density of the juice rather than that of the 
beet, the latter method, however, being more rapid. 
From 1872 to 1874, the selection of mothers attracted 
special attention and many factories all over Europe 
riad special laboratories for seed production. How- 
ever, twenty years before this, Vilmorin had already 
used the juice as a basis of selection. 

3d. Density of the Juice in the Beet. — The core 
was reduced to a pulp and gave about 7 to 10 c. c. 
juice. A complete apparatus was used. This method 
was in vogue for some time and is now interesting from 
an historical standpoint. 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 75 

The sample was rasped and its juice extracted by 
twisting the pulp, held in a piece of cloth, between the 
fingers. The density of the juice obtained was deter- 
mined by a hydrometer (or by the displacement 
method, which consisted in weighing a silver lingot in 
the juice, density being then calculated), the tempera- 
ture of the liquid being kept at 15 degrees C; he recom- 
mended that beets having a density of 1.050 should not 
be used for mothers; special tables were arranged with 
corrections, etc. These underwent several changes, 
until, finally, it was suggested to submit the sample of 
beet to a strong pressure and polarize the juice 
obtained. But to this many objections could be 
found, for the pressed beet does not give juice of the 
same composition as when rasped. By all these 
methods it was necessary to make certain calculations, 
in order to compare the juice examined with 100 grams 
of beet. 

It was soon pointed out that the percentage of 
foreign substances contained in beet juice decreases as 
the specific gravity increases. While the methods of 
selection based upon the density of juice were not gen- 
erally adopted at the time, they have many advocates, 
even at the present day. Herles, for example, has a 
special apparatus for mother selection; it consists in 
using a very small portion of the beet, and only 5 c. c. 
of the juice, its density being at once deter- 
mined. It is maintained that this density gives a 
far better idea of the sugar percentage of the beet than 
the polarization of juice from a very small sample. By 
this apparatus, 1200 analyses may be made in 24 hours, 
and it has met with some success. The first hints as 
to the possibility of ameliorating the quality of beets 
were given by the increase in specific gravity of juice 
from generation to generation. From the third gen- 
eration of selected beets, the juice had a specific gravity 
of 1.807, which corresponded to 21 per cent, sugar. 



76 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

The hereditary tendency was then no longer in doubt. 
The selection based upon the hardness of the skin of 
beets has certain original characteristics, for experi- 
ence has long since shown that the richer the beet, the 
tougher the skin. An instrument consisting of a rod 
with a dial indicator at the other end has been 
employed. This, pressed against the root, gives in 
one reading the resistance to penetration; the greater 
this is, the richer the beet! 

General Remarks Respecting Juice of the Beet. 

The question of the percentage of juice in the beet 
is also very important in selecting roots with the view 
to seed production. This percentage varies very con- 
siderably with the condition of the weather at the time 
of harvesting; if very rainy, the beets evidently weigh 
more and contain more juice than after a drouth. Fur- 
thermore, there is an element of variety; hence, the per- 
centage of juice of one should be compared with 
another; after such comparison, the sugar percentage 
should be determined. There are, accordingly, several 
very misleading factors with which to contend. 

What is true for moisture is reversely true for 
excessive dryness. Then the percentage of juice would 
be less and the sugar percentage apparently greater. 
Hence, the admitted average of 95 per cent, juice is 
open to discussion. In most cases there may be cer- 
tain advantages in estimating the percentage of juice 
by indirect methods, admitting that the total sugar of 
juice is the same as the total sugar of the beet; 
which, in other words, means that it is possible to 
calculate in the laboratory all the sugar in the beet 
solely from the juice by pressure. 

Consequently, the weight of the beet multiplied by 
the per cent, of sugar is equal to the weight of the juice 
multiplied by its per cent, of sugar. If these calcula- 
tions are made, it will be found that there is a frequent 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 77 

variation of 5 per cent, in percentage of juice under 
observation, not only with different beets, but with the 
same varieties. Mothers should not only be rich in 
sugar, but rich in juice. As a basis of comparison, it 
is proposed to determine the sugar percentage by the 
water method, then to repeat the experiments by the 
Violette copper mode, and divide these results one by 
the other. It is claimed that this calculation would 
give an excellent idea of the juice percentage of the 
beet examined. Furthermore, it is recommended to 
give preference to those beets which give the highest 
product when the per cent, of sugar is multiplied by 
the per cent, of juice. Respecting this mode, it seems to 
the writer that it would be too long and expensive for 
root selecting, in seed growers' laboratories. 

4th. Estimation of Sugar in the Juice by Chemical 
Methods.* All these methods require the sugar to be 
transformed into glucose and the proportion of glucose 
then determined by the use of a standard alkaline cop- 
per solution. When all the copper has been reduced 
by the glucose, the solution is no longer blue. Special 
stress is placed on the weight of the oxide of 
copper found, or even on the weight of cop- 
per which has undergone a proper reduction. While 
these methods were in vogue for the estimation 
of sugar in the beet, they demanded too much 
care and time for general use. Furthermore, they have 
proved to be inaccurate in the hands of the average 
chemist. In the selection of beets with the view to 



*The process of manufacture would be very simple if juice con- 
tained only sugar, but there are many salts in dissolution, all of which 
exert considerable influence on the ultimate crystallization. Hence, it 
is very important to know the proportion between sugar and total 
solid substances; this relation is known as the purity coefficient. The 
percent, of solid substances is determined with a hydrometer. If a 
juice contains 16 per cent, solid substances, of which 14 per cent, is 

14x100 
sugar, then — ^ — = purity coefficient=87.5. This should never be lower 
16 

than 80, otherwise the working of such roots into sugar could not be 
made profitable. 



78 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

seed production, the Violette method had a very 
extended application in many laboratories, and a 
description of this mode is of special interest. 

Violette Method. 

This mode of analysis, like the Fuhling, is based 
on the amount of copper reduced by glucose; the 
sample taken from the beet is rather larger than is 
actually required. The early sampler consisted of a 
simple steel apple-corer; the direction given to the 
appliance should be such as to meet the axis of the 
beet at a point one-quarter* of its total length from the 
crown of the root; it may be perpendicular or slanting, 
providing it passes through the centre corresponding 
to h (Fig. 28). The sample should be sliced into small 
pieces, precaution being taken to remove the 
outer skin. 

These should be weighed. Exactly five grams of 
these slices are carefully placed in a flask of 100 c. c. 
(this weight and flask selection has many advocates); 
to it are added 10 c. c. of normal sulphuric acid, then 
40 to 50 c. c. of distilled water. The flask and con- 
tents are gradually heated for 15 to 20 minutes, under 
which circumstances, all the sugar of the sample is 
converted into glucose; the liquid is allowed to cool 



*For mathematical reasoning of same, see "Ware on Sugar Beet," 
Pages 181-182, which is as follows: Mr. Violette supposes the beet an 
exact surface of revolution engendered by the triangle ABC (Fig 29), 
and that the sugar contained increases in an arithmetical progression 
from D to C. If LM be an infinitesimal cylinder parallel to the axis, 
CD, according to the theory just mentioned the point S, middle of 
LM, will have an average amount of sugar for the small element 
under consideration. The same argument will apply to O, when the 
cylinder having the axis DC is considered. If be joined to A and B, 
evidently the lines OA and OB will be the line of all the averages of 
small cylinders possible to imagine as existing in the interior of the 
beet, and the centres of OA and OB, or X and X', will represent the 
exact position of the average of all the averages, and if each 
horizontal slice contains the same amount of sugar, we could write, 

OY OX CD 

= = 1. ThenOY=YD = 

YD XA 4 

Some Rerman chemists recommend that the sample be taken as shown 
in the engraving. 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 



79 



until it reaches 15 degrees C. It is then desirable to add 
10 c. c. of a normal soda solution, in order to neutralize 
the free acid; distilled water is added to complete the 




Slassy's Method for Taking: Sample, Showing also Distribution of 
Sugar in Superior Beets. 




FIG. 28. 



FIG. 29. Diagram ol 
Violette's theory. 



Sampling. 

100 c. c; thorough agitation is necessary in order to 
have the solution homogeneous. Filtration follows; 
10 c. c. of the filtrate is emptied into a graduated 
burette (graduation of one-tenth c. c); 10 c. c. of 
the Violette copper solution* are accurately meas- 



*This liquor consists of 36.46 grams crystallized sulphate of copper 
dissolved in 100 c. c. of distilled water, 200 grams seignette salt, 90 
grams caustic soda. This formula varies slightly. Great care is 
required in its preparation ; it must be kept in the dark, etc. ; as it is 
very sensitive to light it is best to prepare it as needed. 



80 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

ured with a pipette and emptied into the test tube, 
and then heated over a gas jet. This volume of the 
blue liquor requires 0.05 grams of glucose before 
becoming completely decolorized. Several cubic centi- 
meters of the sugar solution are dropped into the test 
liquor; repeated heating brings about changes in color, 
passing from yellow to red, etc. 

After boiling for a few seconds, there will be 
noticed a red deposit at the bottom of the test-tube. 
This is the sub-oxide of copper which has been thrown 
down; a few more cubic centimeters of the sugar solu- 
tion are again added and the liquid is boiled; the addi- 
tion of the sugar solution and the boiling are repeated 
from time to time, until the liquor becomes colorless. 
If the sugar solution is used in excess, there remains a 
yellow tinge, the intensity of which depends upon the 
quantity above what was needed. Note is taken of 
the number of cubic centimeters used to complete the 
copper reduction. If this, for example, had been 
7.3 c. c, it would correspond to 0.05 gram of glucose, 
equivalent to the glucose obtained in the inversion of 
0.0475 gram of sugar. In one cubic centimeter there 
would be 0.05-^7.3, and in 100 c. c, in which have been 
dissolved the sugar from five grams of beet, there is 
0.05X100-^7.3, or 5-^7.3, which equals 0.685 gram 
glucose, corresponding to 0.651 gram sugar. Conse- 
quently, in 100 grams of beet there is 20X0.651, equal 
to 13.02 per cent, of sugar. 

Practical Application of the Violette Method. 

Some years ago, one of the leading beet-seed 
growers introduced the Violette method into his lab- 
oratory. A special machine worked by a pedal gave 
the sample, the beet being placed beneath in a slanting 
position; there were four cutting blades. The intro- 
duction of the weighed samples into the flasks of 100 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 



8L 



c. c. and the subsequent covering with diluted sulphu- 
ric acid, or the heating in the sand bath, were as usual. 
The latter, however, is composed of two circular 
plates, A and B (Fig. 30), of sheet iron covered with 
sand. To these plates a rotary movement is given; to 
one of them direct from a train of wheels like a clock 
movement, and to the other by means of an endless 
chain; both move with the same velocity. Underneath 
these circular disks is arranged a series of gas jets; 50 
flasks can be at once heated in this manner. The work 
is so conducted that the flasks upon one of the disks 




FIG. 30. Heating flask revolving machine. 

are nearly empty, while those on the other are almost 
full. Each flask, as may be imagined, is numbered. 

The analyzing apparatus is composed of a stand 
with a central vertical support, upon and around which 
five horizontal arms can revolve. These arms serve 
for holding the test tubes and burettes, the former con- 
taining the copper solutions, etc., and the latter the 
invert-sugar solutions. The lower horizontal arms 
just mentioned are covered with wire gauze, upon 
which rest the ends of test tubes; each arm can 
hold five tubes. In the second series of arms are holes 
in which the test tubes are placed, and held in vertical 
position. The upper series of arms hold the burettes 
directly over the tubes containing the Yiolette solu- 
tion. The operator places in front of him one of the 

6 



82 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 



arms containing five tubes, each of which is at once 
filled with 10 c. c. of the copper solution. 

In the burettes are placed the invert-sugar solu- 
tions from samples of beets, as previously mentioned; 
and a certain quantity of the inverted liquor is allowed 
to drop into the copper solution. The tubes are at 
once placed over a series of small gas jets, which soon 
bring the mixed copper and sugar solutions to a state 
of ebullition, resulting in the precipitation of a portion 
of sub-oxide of copper. During this operation the 
next series of five tubes is being prepared and is also 
subsequently heated. When the 25 tubes have had 




FIG. 31. Pipette stand. 

their copper solutions completely decolorized, the heat- 
ing and addition of inverted sugar solution must cease. 
As the main object is to throw out all beets not up 
to a given standard, certain tables are used. If in the 
tables we find that 6.3 c. c. of juice (which has been 
prepared by transforming the saccharose into glucose) 
is needed to precipitate the copper of the Violette solu- 
tion, this means that the beet under consideration con- 
tains 15 per cent, sugar. Consequently, if this volume 
is prepared in advance and the reaction is not com- 
plete, the conclusion is that the sugar percentage is 
less and more juice is needed, say 7.9 c. c, which corre- 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 83 

sponds to 12 per cent, sugar. If this volume of the 
invert-sugar solution is required to discharge the blue 
color of 10 c. c. of the Violette reagent, the beet is not 
suitable for a mother and is rejected. 

General Remarks Respecting the Method. 

The boiling of juice with acids demands consider- 
able care, and should be watched from the start, as the 
surface frothing is excessive. To obviate, in a meas- 
ure, this difficulty, it is proposed to add the acid only at 
the end of the boiling. Then again, some chemists 
recommend that acetic instead of sulphuric acid be 
used, under which circumstances, at least 10 to 15 c. c. 
are needed. There is always a danger of the sulphuric 
acid combining with substances other than sugar; con- 
sequently, it is an evident mistake to bring the acid in 
direct contact with the beet slices.* The juice an<l 
acid lead to the best results. Even in this case, there 
are sources of error, as beet juices always contain a 
substance very like glucose, which has, itself, an influ- 
ence on the copper solution which evidently forces the 
results; under the best of circumstances, the Violette 
method is only approximative. 

Another objection to the method is, that artificial 
light cannot well be used; the expense of chemicals, 
gas, etc., are items not to be overlooked when seriously 
undertaking laboratory selection on a large scale. 
Furthermore, looking at the method from a practical 
standpoint, it is entirely too intricate and leads to the 
best results only in the hands of experts, who should 



*M. Pellet savs the action of the acid on tissues of the beet may be 
avoided in working as follows: Divide the operation in two parts; 
make np With Die beet and boiling water a volume of 200 C.C., from 
which is taken 100 e.c. of juice. After filtration and decantation, in- 
vert with sulphuric aeid and dilute until the volume is 200 e.c.; conse- 
quently, there are 10 grains of beets in 400 e.c. These manipulations 
are tedious and do not avoid the errors, which may he 0.2 to 0.7 per 
cent, in certain beets not having attained their fidl maturity, or even 
1 to 1.5 per cent, in beets of inferior quality, or which had undergone 
changes during keening. 



84 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

use it, with the view of a comparatively rapid method 
of comparison for sugar estimation, remembering never 
to examine the color of the solution by holding it up to 
the light, but, on the contrary, against a white wall; 
the colors due to refraction, etc., are thus avoided. 

5th. Estimation of the Sugar in the Beet by 
Means of the Polariscope (a) Alcohol Method. — Among 
the first to introduce alcohol in the laborato- 
ries for sugar estimation was Scheibler (1878). 
However, one must go back to 1762, when Margraff 
gives the first description of how he boiled alcohol with 
dried slices of beet, and the filtrate was subsequently 
left to crystallize during several weeks and the product 
obtained was again washed in alcohol, etc. From 
one-half pound of beets he got half an ounce of sugar. 
Then, in 1825, Dubrunfaut introduces another method 
which did not differ from Margraff's in its essen- 
tial 'workings. 

In the Peligot process, alcohol at 90 degrees was 
used, and from this time on also by Payen, Scheibler 
and Soxhlet. The digestion by cold alcohol, as used by 
Stammer, the cold-alcohol process, has still many advo- 
cates in Germany. In beet selection laboratories the 
alcohol need not be stronger than 80 to 85 degrees. 
This later was changed to a hot-alcohol process. The 
various appliances having alcohol as a basis are too 
numerous to mention. However, certain selecting 
laboratories use them, not for general selection, but 
as a final determination of sugar percentage for beets 
in cases where the roots are shown to be of very supe- 
rior quality, by previous methods. A certain number 
of such beets of each classification are sent to the sec- 
ond laboratory to undergo a second analysis. From 
the results there obtained it is possible to determine to 
which series the mother belongs. The per cent, of 
sugar by the first test does not, however, appear on the 
said list, so that the second chemist can have no pos- 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 85 

t 

sible indication of what the conditions are. The quan- 
tity of pulp to be weighed is either 16.29* grams or 
26.048 grams, according to polariscope used. This 
sample is placed in a vertical tube over a flask in which 
alcohol is being boiled. The vapors of alcohol falling 
upon the beet pulp will carry back to the flask the 
sugar dissolved; as the evaporation goes on, the sugar 
solution becomes denser and denser, and ceases when 
the pulp has been entirely exhausted of its sugar. The 
usual polarization follows. By the German polariscopes, 
one knows in one reading what the sugar percentage 
is. If it is found necessary to make a large number 
of analyses at one time, the Soxhlet appliance may be 
arranged in the battery, and several flasks heated at the 
same time to a temperature of 95 degrees C. Evi- 
dently, the great objection to any of these appliances 
based on the alcohol method of extraction, is that the 
operation must always be repeated in order to obtain 
accuracy in the final results. Another source of error, 
unless in expert hands, is the danger of adding an 
excess of sub-acetate of lead, which chemical. according 
to Pellet, has a tendency when in the presence of alco- 
hol to diminish the rotatory power of sugar, or even in 
certain cases to precipitate a portion of it. There is 
always a certain amount of alcohol lost, which adds 
considerably to the expense. By all alcohol methods, 
hot or cold, it is most essential to have the pulp in a 
cream-like condition; otherwise, with all possible care, 
the sugar percentage will be less than the reality. 

(b) Hot and Cold-Water Methods. f 

The hot and cold-water methods for the analysis 
of samples of beets have of late years undergone many 



*At the congress of chemists held in Paris during 180fi. it was con- 
cluded that the weight for French polariscopes should be 16.29; this 
has yet to be officially accepted, but we have adopted it. 

t We have not used the term aqueous for the simple reason that 
the word is not altogether in keeping with the general practical style 
of the present writing. 



86 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

changes which have rendered the methods excess- 
ively simple. 

Hot Water. — It is interesting to note that M. 
Barbet in 1879 applied this method. A certain weight 
of beet pulp is diffused with three times its volume of 
water, the whole boiled for 15 minutes, then cooled, 
weighed, decanted and lightly pressed in a linen cloth. 
The density of the juice is then taken; this is followed 
by polariscopic examination. It is necessary, in this 
method, to correctly weigh the insoluble residuum; 
the error, however, is very slight. 

In 1883 Pellet called attention to a new hot-water 
method of analysis, in which the beet sample was 
placed in the neck of a flask having a special shape. 
Water was poured over the pulp and a small quantity 
of sub-acetate of lead added, the supposed volume of 
liquid being 200 c. c. A few variations of this method 
will be described at present writing. 

Von Niessen proposed to replace the alcohol by 
water; 100 grams of beet cream are placed in a flask 
of 400 c. c. capacity, and 4 c. c. of lime water are added. 
This is heated in hot water 30 minutes; cooling fol- 
lows; then add 386 c. c. water and 12 c. c. acetate, 
complete to 400 c. c. and allow to settle for 12 hours 
before polarizing. 

(c) Using Pellet and Lamot Rasp. 

Cold Water Method. — Since the early history of 
beet-sugar-making no process has so completely 
changed laboratory methods as the cold-water method 
for beet analysis. The idea has for many years been 
discussed in the laboratories, but it has been modified 
and simplified under the instruction of Pellet. One 
of the greatest difficulties with which to contend is the 
production of pulp sufficiently fine to meet the require- 
ments of perfect diffusion. It is interesting to pas? 
rapidly in review the appliances and advantages they 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 



87 



offer — the importance of which is self-evident. The 
errors made by the hot-water method, when using a 
pulp which has not been properly prepared, are not as 
great as by the cold-water process, for the simple rea- 




FIG. 32. Diagram of the theory of Pellet and Lamot rasp. 

son that the diffusion is within a given time, say a half- 
hour's boiling, and is more complete. 

We shall examine, first of all, the method by which 
the Pellet and Lamot rasp is used, in which case the 
sample is taken from the entire length of the beet and 
in quantities which are proportional to the total weight 
of the beet. 



88 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 




Side view. 




Top View. 
tfio. 33. Pellet and La mot Beet Rasp. 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 89 

If two beets are represented by two regular cones, 
K J H and L I G (Fig. 32), and in plan by two concen- 
tric circles, it is evident that if an angle C A E be 
taken on the beet K J H, and another, BAD, on the 
beet L I G, they will have the same opening, or 30 
degrees. The section in each cone thus obtained bears 
the same relation to the entire root. It becomes evi- 
dent that if the slice taken is limited by the axis of the 
beet, the sample will be one-twelfth of the entire root, 
a result which could be obtained by cutting the beet in 
two, then again into halves, etc. The practical work- 
ing of the rasp is better understood by examining the 
apparatus shown in the engraving (Fig. 33 ) 

The apparatus was at first a sort of circular saw, 
but since has been considerably modified. The beet 
is held in position by lateral knives, in such a way as 
to bring the limit of rotating blades exactly on the axis 
of the root; the latter is pushed forward with one hand, 
while the gear wheels are put in motion with the 
other. For special purposes the opening of the rasp 
may be regulated to suit the requirements. 

Experience has demonstrated that the pulp 
obtained from this rasp has the same density as that 
made by rasping half a beet by hand. To have accu- 
racy in the analysis of one beet, it is found desirable 
to turn the root over, so as to secure another sample 
from the same beet; consequently, with this conical 
rasp it is possible, not only to get an average sample 
of pulp from a series of beets, but also of the same 
beet. The dry pulp obtained should be thoroughly 
mixed; if small lumps are found in the mass these 
should be taken out and finely chopped. The rasp, after 
being used, must be brushed off, not washed with 
water. It is interesting to note that the circular disk 
was originally bronze, but is now constructed entirely 
of steel; its surface is not unlike a coarse file used for 
wood. A velocitv of 400 to 500 revolutions per minute 
is obtained without difficulty. 



90 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

Experiments of Pellet show that both sides :>f the 
beet have not necessarily the same composition; hence, 
for accurate results it is very desirable to turn the beet 
over and take two or three samples from it, until the 
weight is above 16.20 grams, for French polariscopes ; 
if only the large diameter — the beet having always a 
depression on one side — is sampled, the result 
obtained will be in excess. Practical experiments 
show that with the large diameter the average sugar 
per cent, is 1343, while with the small diameter the 
per cent, is 13.23. The amount of pulp obtained in 
the case of the large diameter is nearly double that of 
the smaller section. While a rasp of this kind would 
not be suitable for the selection of beets which are to 
be subsequently used for seed production, it is des- 
tined to render excellent services in experimental 
work, where it is desired to determine the value of 
various experimental patches of families, having cer- 
tain characteristics, before commencing the final selec- 
tion of the root proper. It must be noted, however, 
that if the fractional vertical slices for seed production 
become popular, the rasp would possibly find some 
application in beet-selecting laboratories. 

The Poliakowsky method, if it had been more 
thoroughly studied, would have led to the water proc- 
ess that Pellet subsequently discovered. An impor- 
tant essential for success by this method is, that the 
pulps be excessively fine and cream-like. It is not 
desirable to weigh more than 26.048 grams for the Ger- 
man polariscope, for a volume! of 201.35 c. c, or 25.87 
grams for a volume of 200 c. c. The pulp is washed in a 
special flask of 200 c. c. capacity; 5 to 7 c. c. sub- 
acetate at 30 degrees Be are added, then a few drops 
of ether. Considerable agitation of the flask and con- 
tents is necessary to avoid frothing. The 200 c. c. 
are completed with water; filtration and polarization 
as usual. It is recommended before polarizing that 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 91 

a few drops of acetic acid be added. By using a tube 
of 400 m. m. in length the saccharine percentage is 
obtained at one reading. This cold-water process 
gives most excellent results, excepting during very- 
cold weather; then it is found desirable to slightly heat 
the water. 

(c)2. Special Rasp (Keil and Dolle) with Subsequent 
Weighing of Pulps. 

It is interesting to examine in some detail the 
cold-water method for selection, as combined with the 
Keil and Dolle rasp. The general arrangement for 
laboratories is shown in Fig. 36. The motion of ths 
rasp is given either by hand in turning a wheel, or by 
a gas on other engine, under which circumstances the 
upper arrangement of pulleys is not changed, as by 
suitable belting - the desired velocity is reached direct 
from the motor on the floor, replacing the hand appli- 
ance; the rasp proper is very simple in its appearance; 
it may be single or double and has well-arranged 
brakes and pulleys, allowing almost instantaneous 
stoppage. The fly-wheel on the shaft regulates the 
movement. The point of the rasp is a cone with teeth 
very like diose used on wood files. In this point there 
are three openings, (see detail of point, Fig. 34) into 
which the cream-like pulp enters. In the original 
type of these machines it was necessary to unscrew 
the cylinder on which the conical rasp is fastened; the 
cylinder had to be emptied and then thoroughly 
washed before taking a sample from another beet. 
Under these circumstances it was not possible to make 
more than 1000 analyses per diem. 

Movable cylinders inside the rasp for a time were 
used, these being replaced by others during washing. 
This change in the method increased, in a measure, the 
working capacity of the apparatus, but did not entirely 
meet the requirements for rapid analysis. At last a 



02 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

very simple method, which is most practical and does 
away with the movable cylinder, washing, etc., was 
introduced. It consists in having a rod R fastened to 
the rasping point; at end of the rod is a circular disk 
D of the same diameter as the cone of revolving shaft. 
When the cone is unscrewed it carries with it the rod 
and disk, the pulp cylinder falling into a special cap- 
sule, care being taken to leave behind the portion of 
pulp near the disk, as it is the remains of a previous 
operation and has been pushed back by the new pulp 
from the last beet from which a sample is taken. Expe- 
rience shows that only four-fifths of the contents of 
cylinder should be allowed to fall into the capsule; by 
this means 3000 analyses may be made in twenty- 
four hours. 

Certain practical precautionary measures are 
essential. One must be careful to bring the mother 




FIG. 34. Detail of rasp point. fig. 35. Wide neck flask. 

in contact with the revolving rasp very slowly; fur- 
thermore, when the penetration through the beet is 
nearly complete, the revolution of the rasp should be 
lessened, otherwise there would be danger of bruising 
the beet on the other side. Suitable brakes must be 
used so as to stop the apparatus at once, as soon as 
the belt is thrown on the loose pulley. When the 
mothers are arranged on a table near at hand, the 
sampling can commence. The rasp is put in motion 
by moving the lever commanding the belting; as soon 
as completed, that is, as soon as the sample is taken, 
the reverse movement is given to the lever so as to 
stop the general motion, while a special brake with 
spring attachment stops the rasp instantly. If there 
are two rasps on the same shaft, they must revolve 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 9^> 

in the same direction, otherwise there would result 
considerable complication. 

Pellet makes some important observations respect- 
» ing the use of the Keil rasp. It should penetrate the 
beet one-fourth of its length without neck. When 
the cutting portions of the rasp are sharp and in good 
condition, the pulp obtained is sufficiently fine to give 
accurate results by the cold-water process of analysis, 
but if the pointed rasp works badly the conditions are 
changed. If the velocity of the rasp is too slow, or if 
the motion is reversed, the pulp obtained is not suffi- 
ciently fine for the purpose intended. It is important 
to note that the hole made in the beet by the Keil and 
Dolle rasp is 14 m. m. in diameter, that it in no way 
destroys the keeping qualities of the mother root; also 
that at least 300 perforations may be made per hour, 
or 3000 a day; this cannot be reached at first and 
requires considerable experience. To make sure of 
conditions, a comparative test by cold and hot water 
should be made. Place beside the rasp the tray hold- 
ing ten capsules, or small receptacles for the reception 
of the pulp. Each of them has a number and the mix- 
ing is done in them, or in a larger receiver. 

Weighing the Pulp. 

It is then emptied into a nickel capsule of a known 
weight. It is desirable to have several on hand, so as 
to avoid errors. The pulp, after being thoroughly- 
mixed, is weighed in capsules. One-quarter of the 
normal weight required for the polariscope is sufficient 
for the test; at least 1000 of such weighings can be 
done in ten hours on ordinary scales, and for special 
seed laboratories five or more scales are in active use. 

Filling of Flasks with Pulp. 

The flasks used have a capacity of 50 c. c. (Fig. 
■ 35), with a very large opening. The pulp is washed 



94 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

into them with 25 to 30 c. c. of water, from a reservoir 
three to five feet above the table; its capacity depends 
upon the requirements. The water is mixed with 30 to 
40 c. c. of sub-acetate of lead, 28 to 30 Be.*^A),per liter 
capacity, and is well stirred. A tube, either of glass or 
rubber, connects the reservoir w r ithin easy reach of the 
table, on which are the empty flasks waiting to be 
filled. A special funnel is placed in the flask. The 
funnel has an upper opening of 6 c. m., and is 7 c. m. 
in length, its smaller dimensions being considerably 
less than the neck of the flask; it is held in position by 
suitable wire attachments. The capacity of the funnel 
being at least 100 c. c, there need then be no danger 
from splashing when being filled with the entire 
contents of capsule; under these circumstances the air 
from the flasks escapes without difficulty during filling. 
A very important precaution is to thoroughly 
moisten the pulp in the capsule before washing it into 
the funnel over the flask. Great care should be taken to 
have the flasks filled, exactly to the 50 c. c. mark of the 
flask; if necessary, by reason of excessive frothing, bet- 
ter add a few drops of acetic acid, so as to make sure 
that the desired volume is obtained, or allow for excess 
in subsequent calculations. The flask, with pulp and 
water, is thoroughly shaken. The filtering can be 
conducted 1 on a very large scale, the arrangement of 
the apparatus varying with circumstances, f The glass 
funnels should be of a suitable size. The clear filtrate 
is collected in a conical-shaped tumbler; to it are added 
a few drops of acetic acid; when it is filled, it is taken 
on a tray with twenty others to the table of the polari- 



*A satisfactory formula for the preparation of lead acetate is as 
follows— 325 to 350 grams neutral aeetate of lead, 100 grams powdered 
litharge, to which is added 900 grams' water. It is necessary to boil for 
one-half hour to completely dissolve the litharge, add water until the 
volume is one liter. Another formula given by a well-known chemist 
is— 350 grams neutral lead acetate, 55 c. c. ammonia, 800 grams water; 
dissolve the acetate in water and then add the ammonia; the specific 
gravity should be 25 degrees Be. 

tSee description of M. Legras's laboratory. 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 



95 



scope. Great care is needed to have each numbered, 
the number in question corresponding to that of the 
beet from which the juice was obtained. 

Practical Working by the Keil and Dolle Rasping 

Method. 

The general plan (Fig. 36) gives an excellent idea 
of a well-organized laboratory, working by the Keil 




FIG. 36. Flan of a ueet-selecting laboratory. 

and Dolle rasping method. The beets are brought to 
Table B, where they are weighed. Those roots within 



96 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

the prescribed limit of weight are taken to Table A, 
consisting of a series of shelvings about six feet in 
height. On each shelf there are compartments for 
twenty beets; each has a number, to which is also 
appended the number of the shelf. The rasping is 
done by the two double rasps at Table C. The motor 
for the rasps is shown at D. There are four small 
scales, E, on which the cream-like pulp is weighed; 
the flasks are filled on the other side of the same table, 
f, f, f; the necessary distilled water and subacetate of 
lead are obtained from reservoirs suspended from the 
ceiling. The filtering tables are shown at F; the 
funnels are all held in a fixed frame, while the glasses 
receiving the filtrate are on tables with wheels, which 
may run on tracks, tttt; these each hold twenty 
glasses, ten on each side. When the filtering is com- 
plete, they in turn are run over to R, which con- 
sists of two rooms with polariscopes, having a common 
light, p. It is interesting to note, that as soon as the 
sample is taken from the beet at Table C, it is returned 
to its respective compartment at Table A. Consider- 
able system is essential for satisfactory working. 
The 50 c. c. flasks, when filled, are carried in wire 
baskets, in series of ten, to the filtering tables. As the 
variations of sugar percentage need be only between 
the limits of 14 to 16 per cent, of sugar, no very great 
accuracy is required for weighing pulp or filling flasks; 
it can, consequently, be done with considerable 
rapidity. After the analyses tables have left the chem- 
ists' hands, the beets which are not kept are taken from 
the compartment of A. For 5000 analyses per diem, 
28 persons are needed; this includes the overseer and 
the boy to keep the laboratory clean. 

(c) 3. Analysis with a Special Sampler, Without 
Weighing, as x\dopted by M. Legras. 

This method depends upon the use of the 
Ham iot machine, and also upon a sampler worked 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 



97 




Fig. 37. Vertical Sampler. 



98 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

by steam. The doing away with the tedious 
derails of weighing expedites matters. And the 
rapid analyses of beets, before siloing for the win- 
ter, demands that the daily analyses reach a maxi- 
mum. After the physical selection on the field, the 
roots are gradually brought to the laboratory and each 
placed in a special compartment. The Laon laboratory 
is divided into two parts, parallel to each other, there 
being less confusion with this arrangement. There are 
two series of shelving, each with 300 compartments, 
15 rows vertically, and 20 horizontally; the sizes of 
these, taken as a whole, are: Length, ten feet; width, 
nine inches; height, six feet; distance between com- 
partments, five inches vertically, and six inches 
horizontally. For each series there are two Hanriot 
appliances, and one vertical sampler worked by steam, 
which is sufficient for the entire laboratory. The 
arrangement of the sampler is shown in Fig. 37. It 
is capable of giving 70 vertical strokes per minute, but 
this would be entirely too rapid for the laboratory 
work, not more than 15 to 20 strokes per minute being 
necessary. 

Great precaution is required in order to give the 
beet the proper slant during sampling. It should be 
so arranged, as previously explained, that the 
perforations be made at one-fourth the length of the 
beet, without the neck. It is desirable to keep a rub- 
ber band beneath the beet on the table during sam- 
pling. This precaution obviates mutilating the beet by 
the passage of the knife. The cut sample remains in place 
and is removed by hand. The cylinder obtained from 
the beet has a diameter of about 12 m. m. (■£ inch), and 
a length which varies from 60 to 80 m. m. (2 1-3 to 3^ 
inches). The cylinders are placed in special frames, 
as shown in the engraving, these frames having 20 
divisions each. There are five of these frames in con- 
stant use for each series of the laboratory; as 100 beets 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 99 

are being examined at a time, it is better to have at 
least seven for each series of ioo beets. For each 
series of the laboratory in turn, the small cylinders 
obtained are placed in regular order, one alongside of 
the other, and cut at equal length by a parallel blade- 
slicer of special construction, capable of cutting 1200 
per hour. 

The samples are then replaced in their respective 
numbered compartments of the frame. It is an aston- 
ishing fact that these small cylinders have nearly the 
same weight, and the error committed is so slight that 
its influence upon the whole series of experiments need 
not be considered. The exact weight for the demands 
of these analyses should be 6.512 grams or 26.048^-4 
grams.* With the view of determining what their 
exact weight is, 100 were weighed in five series 
of 20; the average for each series was 6.506 grams, 
6.512 grams, 6.503 grams, 6.527 grams, 6.518 
grams, or a variation of 0.01 to 0.02 grams; an approx- 
imation quite sufficient for all practical purposes. 

It is interesting to note that several preliminary 
weighings are necessary; the slicing blade is adjusted 
accordingly, and, when once arranged, can be relied 
upon. The Hanriot machine (Fig. 38) in which these 
small cylinders are placed and reduced to a fine pulp, 
consists of a conical box, H % made of hard bronze, with 
lateral tube, the appliance itself being mounted on a 
tripod, which may be screwed upon a table, z, z' and z." 
Inside the bronze box are a series of grooves, made in 
the direction of the generatrix of the cone. Against 
this surface revolves, at a velocity of 2200 to 2500 
revolutions per minute, a solid cone, which has a series 
of teeth all at an angle of 45 degrees to the axis of rev- 
olution, thus facilitating the exit of the pulverized beet, 
and also of the water during washing. The cylinder 



*This weight varies with the polariscope used. For the French 
apparatus it would 16.29-^-4=4.07 grams. 



100 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

from the sampler is placed in the apparatus through a 
lateral orifice. As soon as the solid cone revolves, it 
is, by a well-combined lever, P, worked by hand, forced 
against the outer cone, the lower part of which is a 
funnel-shaped hopper, H, connecting with the flask, F, 
having the same number and serial divisions as the 
sample being crushed. In connection with the inte- 
rior of the machine is a rubber appliance, R, its capac- 
ity being 80 c. c, filled with water; by pressing it the 
water is forced between the inner and outer cones and 
empties itself into the flask, F, of 105 c. c. capacity. It 
is of interest to notice that on top of the rubber appli- 




7. 

Fig. 38. Han riot crusher for beet sample. 

ance, R, there is a projection, E, which may be con- 
nected with a reservoir of water. 

There are special frames or baskets to hold twenty 
flasks, each compartment of which is numbered. The 
flasks are carried to a table where 1.5 c. c. of subacetate 
of lead are added, the quantity being accurately 
obtained by the use of a special hand measure. The 
flasks are then filled with water up to the 100 c. c. 
mark, a few drops of ether on the surface removing 
the froth that generally exists. The flasks must be 
thoroughly agitated prior to filtration, which opera- 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 



101 




trfwwlm 



7" 



A% 



WAM^M 



/"- 



,v> v\. aW\«v ■ ■ ,«- .■■■■.\\\\\\\\\\\VNV ■: ■ \\\WvK\\\\\VV\W .nv\ • 



(Section AB) End View. 



6 'A feet 
25/ liters 




J 25filters 



Side View. 
Fig 39. Filtering Table. 



102 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

tion takes place on a special table. The filtering-room 
in the Legras laboratory is most important and well 
combined, the benches for the double series of shelving, 
arranged back to back, as shown in the engraving (Fig. 
39). Each double series holds 100 filtering tunnels and 
100 conical glasses holding the filtrate; consequently, 
there are 200 nitrations going on at the same time. 
Experience shows that rather more than this number 
are necessary, and it is better to have 240 working, or 
120 on each side of the table, so as to be able to reach 
800 analyses per diem. Not less than 320 flasks and 320 
glasses are needed; this makes allowance for breakage. 
Some of these are used to receive the filtrate, and 
others wait their turn on the chemist's table. The 
filtering paper used is a kind which has been mechan- 
ically folded in advance. Strange as it may seem, 
practical experience has shown that the glasses do not 
need washing, and the error committed by having 
them cleaned for each analysis would be greater than 
if left untouched for the whole series of operations for 
which they are used. This fact may be explained by 
the reason that there is a very slight difference in the 
composition of the juices being filtered, and which 
follow one another in regular order. 

Classification. 

All observations made in regard to the sugar per- 
centage are noted on special sheets of five double col- 
umns of twenty polarizations each, or 100 per sheet: 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 



103 



Year 1898.- - Serial No 


. 8'2'2. 








Date. 


No. 


Polar- 
ization. 


No. 
21 


Polar- 
ization. 


N T o. 
•41 


Polar- 
ization. 


No. 
01 


Polar- - 
ization.! 


No. 


Polar- 
ization. 


Feb. 17. 


1 


14.4 






81 





























































































































































































































































































































































































20 




40 




60 




80 




100 



















The arrangement, is shown herewith : First double column, with 
number of observation and polarization; the second, etc., series 
follow : as each sheet contains 100 observations for 10,000 polarizations 
per diem, 100 sheets would be required; these are separate and 
complete. 

From these tables is combined another, giving a 
synopsis for the ioo analyses made, and the number of 
mothers having a special polarization, and the num- 
ber rejected: 



Synopsis. 



No. of roots rej ected 

No. of mothers testing 13 per cent. 
No. of mothers testing 14 per cent. 
No. of mothers testing 15 per cent. 

No. of mothers testing, etc 

No. of mothers testing, etc 



Total 



Series 

of the 

Day. 



100 



Aggregate 

of Previous 

Days. 



30,600 



Total. 



30,700 



If 10,000 polarizations are made, 100 sheets like this are necessary. 
One sheet being continuous of the other, the final sheet would give 
the exact condition of the day's work. 

It must not be forgotten that the Legras mother- 
selecting laboratory is the most important in France, 
if not in the world. With proper assistants, 10,000 
analyses may be made in twenty-four hours. By the 
present arrangement, however, 34 persons are employed: 
To carry beets, 2; sampling, 2; filling trays with sam- 



104 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

pies, I ; working sampler, I ; Hanriot appliance, with 
assistants, 6; acetate of lead, ether, etc., manipulations, 
2; juice measurers, 2; juice filtration, 4; carrying glass 
jars, etc., 2; for the two polariscope observations, 6; for 
classification of results, 2; arranging beets and general 
cleaning, etc., 4. M. Legras says that under the con- 
dition of the Laon environment with the laboratory at 
the sugar factory, he can make an analysis of mothers 
for three-fifths of a cent, which, however, does not 
include cost of plant, etc., but is for labor and chem- 
icals only. One fact is certain, that the cost of the cold- 
water method of analysis is just one-half the cost of 
the Fuhling or other oxide of copper modes. The 
laboratory where all these observations are made 
is 43x20 feet, a special space 9x9 feet being needed for 
sample trays and for the three-horse-power engine 
which works the sampler. These are very crowded 
quarters, and would have to be very considerably 
increased for 15,000 analyses per diem, as contem- 
plated. To accomplish such extraordinary results in 
so limited a time demands almost a military system of 
working, since the goings and comings of so many 
hands would mean great confusion and failure unless 
all were well disciplined. 

(c) 4. Sachs' Direct Method. 

During the writer's visit to Brussels he was shown 
in the Sachs laboratory a very much simplified cold- 
water digestion mode for rapid beet analysis, arranged 
by Sachs. It does away with flasks and many manip- 
ulations which in reality demand far greater care and 
precautions than was at first thought necessary. The 
production of a very fine pulp with the Keil and Dolle 
rasp introduced considerable volume of air into the 
pulp, which is most difficult to get rid of, even with alco- 
hol or ether. The errors may vary from 0.3 to 1 per 
cent, of sugar, an item of considerable importance to 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 105 

farmers when beets are purchased by the manufactur- 
ers on the basis of a sliding scale depending 
upon sugar percentage. By this new method the 
beet sample must be a very fine pulp, obtained 
as usual with the rasp just mentioned; 26.048 
grams are weighed in a capsule of a known 
weight, 5 c. c. of sub-acetate of lead and 172 c. c. 
of water are then added, giving a total of 177 c. c* 
The capsule is covered and is then thoroughly agitated; 
polarization follows after having added a few drops of 
acetic acid. 

The complete apparatus, shown in engraving (Fig. 
40), consists of a reservoir, L, of distilled, or rain 
water, connected by a rubber pipe with pinch cock, V, 
to the tube, C, of the pipette (see Fig. 41). The flask, M, 
contains subacetate of lead in communication with 
pipette, B, by means of a rubber pipe, on which is the 
pinch cock, V. When the pipette is too full, the over- 
flow can run through A into flask. S t on the lower level. 
The flask, 0, contains acetic acid, which is used to 
clean the pipette, which latter is held in a vertical posi- 
tion by a suitable support. T is the capsule in which 
the rasped pulp is weighed, and into which the con- 
tents of the pipette are emptied. This arrangement 
can be made to suit the special demands of any labor- 
atory. One precaution is very important, viz., that 
the flask, M, be not higher than six inches above B, so 
that the flow be not too rapid, and so that the 5 c. c. 
mark may be under mathematical observation. The 
water reservoir should be at least three feet higher 
than the pipette, so as to allow for its rapid filling. 

The pipette is filled in the following manner: One- 
fourth of a turn of K opens communication with M; 



•Experiments show that beets contain 4.75 per cent, marc, or for 
26.048 grams, 1.24 of marc and 24.81 grams of juice. If juice has an av- 
erage density of 1.07, there will he 23.18 c. c. or 23 c. c, making allow- 
ance for the lead deposits. If 177 c. c. water is added, this makes up 
exactly 200c. c. and no allowance need be made for froth. 



106 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 



when the subacetate reaches /, the cock is turned 
another one-fourth of a revolution, which allows the 
water from L to enter the apparatus. As soon as the 
water commences to run over at H, K is again turned, 




Fig. 40. 



Complete apparatus. 

and by completing the revolution the contents of the 
pipette fall into T, containing the pulp. This is covered 
with a rubber disk and is held in position between the 
hands; after a few minutes, shaking and filtration fol- 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 



107 



low. By smearing a little vaseline over the surface of 
the rubber, one obtains a perfect joint; furthermore, it 
prevents adherence of the liquid to its surface. It is 
desirable to leave the capsule with its contents in 




Fio. 41. Detail of pipette. 

repose for a few minutes, to make sure that the diffu- 
sion is complete. 

The method may be still further simplified by 
doing away with flask M, and having the subacetate 



108 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

solution in reservoir L. This mixture is prepared by 
adding to iooo c. c. of water, 29 c. c. of subacetate at 
30 Be., followed by careful agitation; under these cir- 
cumstances the cock, K, is turned a half-revolution for 
each filling of the pipette. One of the objections to this 
mixing in advance is that as considerable volume must 
be prepared, and if not done under the direct care of 
the chemist, there would be no certainty as to results, 
while by the mode described in the foregoing, the pro- 
portions would be accurate for each experiment; 
hence, the desirability of having a separate subacetate 
flask. We take pleasure in calling attention to the fact 
that this apparatus is also constructed for the Laurent 
polariscope, in which case the pipette has a capacity 
of 171. 4 c. c, and double the normal weight (16.29 
grams), or 32.58 grams is weighed in the capsule. The 
simplicity of the analysis places it within reach 
of the rural population, who, without any special tech- 
nical education, could soon learn to use the polariscope 
and estimate for themselves just what percentage of 
sugar their beets contain. 

General Remarks on Laboratory Requisites for the 
Selection of Mothers by the Cold- Water Method. 

A general idea of a selecting laboratory was shown 
in a plan on page 95. The arrangement, however, 
varies very much with the facilities one has at his dis- 
posal ; however, there are certain essentials from which 
no great departure must ever be made. 

Under all circumstances, there should be plenty of 
room around a central table containing 100 samples of 
juice being filtered. The going and coming being 
very considerable, the distribution of light is 
important, not only during the day, but at night. For 
it frequently happens in laboratories visited by the 
writer, that the capacity is doubled by working night 
and day, under which circumstances, it is possible, 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 109 

with an installation for 5000 analyses per diem, to work 
10,000, but with different chemists and general help. 

It is always desirable to have several rooms, and 
these of a size to permit doubling, if necessary, the 
work to be done during twelve hours. It is best to 
have the polariscopic examination in a separate place 
from where the filtering or sampling is done; not so 
much on account of being obliged to use an artificial 
light, as to be away from the noise, which always has 
a distracting effect upon the observer, who, after an 
interval of time, becomes more or less fatigued. An 
ample supply of water in all cases is necessary in order 
to keep the laboratory thoroughly clean. As stated in 
previous pages, it is desirable to make the first selection 
of beets upon the fields, depending entirely upon exte- 
rior characteristics. It is, however, important to make 
another selection as soon as the silo is opened, for cer- 
tain roots always undergo alterations during their 
keeping. Then, again, other roots are thrown out, 
owing to their size, shape, etc. This final sorting 
reduces by nearly one-half the beets which had been 
selected for analysis after harvesting. The beets 
remaining are carried by hand or cart, depending upon 
the country, to the reception-room, which should be 
very spacious, as frequently 1000 beets are spread out, 
covering considerable area. It is important to have 
the reception-room divided into several rooms, thus 
keeping very superior beets entirely separate. 

It is not necessary to have on hand the whole num- 
ber of beets for one day's analyses; if for a laboratory 
suited for 4000 analyses per diem, about 800 beets only 
need be waiting their turn. This requires eight series of 
shelving and compartments of 100 roots. These may 
be arranged in sub-divisions, A, B, C and D, each of 
which is sub-divided in two series. 

Division A P st series, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 100 

division A j 2(J series, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 100 

tm«i.ia« n f Is* aeries, l, 2, 3. 4. 5, 6 100 

vi vision a j 2d serieSi i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 100 



110 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

The reception-room during a day's working in the 
present case is rilled and emptied five times. Each 
beet of any division or series has a number, which it 
retains during the entire manipulation of the sample 
in the laboratory. Before being taken to the sample- 
room, it is weighed on an ordinary spring scale, no 
great accuracy being necessary; it is then placed in 
the pigeonhole, waiting its turn, as not more than 
one-fifth of the roots are retained during the early 
periods of selection; for one day there would remain 
but 800 individual beets of the 4000 analyses made. It 
is important, after the sample is taken from the root, to 
fill up the hole made with clay or wood charcoal. The 
mothers are thus in a measure protected against rot, 
etc., even after several months in the silos. 

After the chemical selection has been completed, 
the beets are placed in special silos until the planting 
season. The help needed for 2500 to 3000 analyses 
per diem with one polariscope having a continuous 
tube attachment, using the Keil and Dolle rasp, accord- 
ing to Pellet, is as follows: 

( To classify beets I 

Rasping ] To work the rasp 1 

( To serve rasp 1 

w -„v*i~„ ( To carry capsules to scales 1 

Weighing... j weighers... 4 

( Flask filters * 

Filtration. . . \ Gangers 1 

( To look after filters 2 

portion {5aSJS^^.::::::::::::""::::::::::::::::::::::::t 

Two women should be kept constantly at work, washing cap- 
sules, giving a total of 21 

If it is intended to analyze 4000 to 5000 beets per 
diem, an extra rasp would be needed. There would 
be required about seven or eight additional hands: 
Rasping, 1; weighing, 2; filtering, 3; to accom- 
plish nearly double the work. These analyses may be 
made for about one cent per beet examined. By the 
Hanriot method, the weighing being done away with, 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. Ill 

the help needed is considerably reduced. For 4000 to 
5000 analyses: 

aamnl .„„ f To operate the sampler ] 

sampling ^ To gerve the samp i er 1 

Hanriot Machine. 

Filtration 

Polarization [ 



' Cutting samples 1 

■ To operate the apparatus * 

i To carry juice in flasks to filtering tables a 

Flask filters 2 

'l Gaugers 2 

To use polariscope : 2 

Assistants 2 



Including two women to wash capsules, etc., we must estimate 
at least 20 persons. 

In the analyses of 10,000 beets per diem, by the 
Keil rasping method, there are needed 56 persons 
instead of 20 for 3000. By the Hanriot machine, 30 
individuals are necessary to do the work. It would 
be a great mistake to take any of the figures as being 
exact to the letter, for experience is a great factor; the 
climatic influence of the environment is also a question 
not to be overlooked; and there are great doubts if 
any mother- selecting laboratories of the United States 
could at first reduce the number of hands to within the 
limits given in the foregoing. 

The persons employed in the Legras laboratory, 
being in many cases boys and girls under the charge 
of competent persons, are more numerous than if the 
training of the individuals had been going on during a 
period of seasons, which would be difficult to realize; 
the laboratory should not be in full activity moie 
than a few months of the year. 

Apparatus Necessary for a Laboratory Capable of 

Analyzing 2500 to 3000 Mothers Per Diem 

by the Keil Rasp Method 

One rasp, 1 motor (gas, petroleum or hand 
motor), 1 polariscope, 200 numbered capsules, 4 chem- 
ical balances, 8 nickel capsules, 4 weights (one-fourth 
normal weight), 4 nickel funnels, 4 water reservoirs, 
500 flasks of 50 to 55 c. c. capacity, 500 funnels, 500 
tumblers, 200 numbers with pinches, 2 continuous 



112 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

tubes of 400 m. m. in length, 3 baskets to hold 20 flasks 
each, 6 ether dropping flasks, 6 acetic acid dropping 
flasks; a certain quantity of subacetate of lead, acetic 
acid, nitric acid, filtering paper, etc., depending 
upon the size of laboratory. For 10,000 analyses per 
diem, the above would have to be doubled. M. Pellet 
recommends that a certain number of flasks of 100 to 
1 10 c. c. and 200 to 205 c. c. capacity be kept on hand, 
so as to make comparative experiments by the hot and 
cold methods; a certain number of sand baths are 
always necessary. 

By the Hanriot method the apparatus necessary 
is: 2 Hanriot apparatus, 1 sampler, 1 knife, 4 nickel 
funnels, 2 water reservoirs, 1 balance, 2 small nickel 
capsules (one-fourth normal weight), 500 flasks of 50 
to 55 c. c. capacity, 500 funnels, 500 tumblers, 200 
numbers with pinching attachments, 1 polariscope, 2 
continuous tubes 400 m. m. in length, 3 baskets for 20 
flasks, 6 ether dropping flasks and 6 acetic acid drop- 
ping flasks. 

It is interesting to compare these with the prac- 
tical working of the Legras laboratory mentioned in 
previous pages. Under all circumstances, a good sup- 
ply of chemicals, mentioned in foregoing, viz., ether, 
acetic acid and subacetate of. lead, are needed. For 
10,000 analyses per diem these appliances must, in 
nearly every case, be doubled. It is hardly necessary 
to go into details of the numerous motors that are in 
use or that have been suggested for laboratory work. 
The principal point to be kept in mind, is, that 2000 
revolutions of the Keil rasp, or the Hanriot apparatus, 
must be maintained; otherwise, the work accomplished 
would be very poor in beet selecting; the root would 
be so mutilated that its keeping would be almost 
impossible. Most of the glass funnels, flasks and 
tumblers could be furnished by most any dealer of 
chemical appliances; it is, however, very essential 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 113 

that the flasks should have the capacity mentioned 
in the description of the cold-water method of analysis. 
The Hanriot apparatus, as described and illus- 
trated elsewhere in this writing, is a very unique 
design, and it should be obtained from the maker. 
The same may be said of the Keil and Dolle rasp and 
the continuous tube for polariscopes. In Germany, 
many modifications have been made, but to the writer's 
knowledge none have given the satisfaction of the 
original Pellet combination. 

German Selecting Laboratory. 

-,By way of comparison with the Legras laboratory, 
just described, one may take the Braune (Biendon, 
Germany), laboratory, which, up to 1889, worked as 
we shall describe herewith, but has since introduced 
the cold-water method. However, there are certain 
conditions which have not changed. The beets 
are analyzed in February, and by the end of 
April the work is finished; the physical selection 
having been carefully done the year previous. The 
beets at the time of harvesting are selected by the 16 
degrees Brix salt-water selection; all beets sinking and 
weighing at least 500 grams are subsequently polar- 
ized, as it is supposed that they contain at least 
16 per cent, sugar. The work is done by men of 
long experience. 

The February laboratory work is better explained 
by following the engraving herewith (Fig. 42). The 
rasp used gives a fine pulp. This is submitted to a 
pressure in the powerful press (1); two-thirds of the 
resulting juice is used for polarization, the remaining 
third being used later. Four c. c. juice (2) is poured 
into a flask of 10 c. c. capacity; then the flask is filled up 
to the mark with diluted subacetate of lead. Filtration 
follows; the 100 m. m. tubes of the polariscope (3) are 
filled with the filtrate. All beets polarizing more than 

8 



114 



SUGAR BEET SEJ D. 




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O 
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« 
o 

CO 

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6 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 115 

14 per cent, sugar are taken to a second laboratory, 
where other chemists continue the work. The 2 c. c. 
of juice remaining from the sample above referred to 
(the total volume being 6 c. c), are thoroughly defe- 
cated in a Stammer oven (4), heated by steam. The 
weight of dry substance and the sugar percentage give 
the purity coefficient. If this purity coefficient is 
higher than 85, the beet is perforated for the second 
time, and with the new sample of pulp obtained, the 
Soxhlet-Sickel (5) extractor allows one to determine 
very accurately the sugar percentage. 

In 1890, instead of obtaining the juice under pres- 
sure and extracting by alcohol (6), the cold-water proc- 
ess demanded the use of the Keil rasping method (7, 8 
and 9). Fifteen grams of pulp are thus obtained; one- 
half of normal weight are weighed, and the sugar per- 
centage is determined as previously described. It is 
admitted that this French method has made the work 
much simpler, antf the results are more satisfactory. It 
is not necessary to enter into other details regarding 
this laboratory, as there are several of the same 
importance in many beet-seed producing centres of 
the country. 

Polariscopes for Mother Selection. 

The type of polariscope for selection of mothers 
should not be the same as that used for sugar polari- 
zations, where the right-hand polarizations reach 100 
degrees. As the tubes used in the beet-seed selecting 
laboratories are 400 m. m. in length, and as only 
16.29-^-4 grams of pulp are used at a time, it is prefer- 
able to have the vernier graduated only to 25 degrees, 
for example, and at the other end starting from 
12 degrees. 

The plan of having a special electrical attachment 
to the vernier of a polariscope is very simple, and has 
rendered considerable service. The adjustment in 



116 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

question is arranged for polariscopes with dials; the 
first stop is not far from the zero point, the other is 
near the division, 30 degrees; the distance between 
stops is regulated by suitable screws. When once 
arranged, they are in electric communication with two 
bells. As each has a different pitch or sound, it is pos- 
sible under these circumstances to make several classi- 
fications; for example, below 15 to 16 per cent., or 
from 17 to 18 per cent., etc. 

If the right or left bell rings, the chemist knows 
that the juice being examined has a certain sugar per- 
centage without it being necessary to do any actual 
reading. However, careful work demands a certain 
observation. If, when either bell rings, the disks are 
neutral, or of some tint depending upon polariscope 
used, it would show that the stop on the vernier corre- 
sponded exactly to that percentage; if, on the other 
hand, the black disc is to the right when the left bell 
rings, it would show that the juice under observation 
was of a lower percentage than the limit required for 
the selection; if to the left when the right bell sounds, 
this would convey that the sugar percentage was 
higher than the limit for which it was adjusted. Over 
1000 observations may be thus made in a very short 
time and with very little fatigue. 

In the zero, as compared with an ordinary instru- 
ment, these differences may frequently be 0.2 to 0.3. 
It is generally desirable to make several observations 
on the same juice before commencing regular work. 
After having polarized, the results are noted; during 
the interval the assistant fills the funnel, etc. The 
work has twice the rapidity it had with an ordinary 
tube. In mother-selecting, it is possible to reach ten 
a minute. Certain difficulties may arise and many 
precautions are necessary, among which, mention may 
be made of the following: The liquid being examined 
must be very clear and ample light must be used; if the 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 117 

tube does not fill rapidly, or the funnel does not empty 
itself, the difficulty may be overcome by slightly 
increasing the slant of the tube, by raising the funnel. 
If the flask is too low, there is danger of siphoning 
the tube; the funnel is then lowered. Precaution must 
be taken to have the curved glass tube, at the empty- 
ing extremity, of a suitable length. When the day's 
observations are finished, the tube should be washed 
with distilled water and kept full until again used; then 
the washing should be done with acidulated water and 
a saccharine liquor of about the same strength as the 
sugar solution to be analyzed. 

M. Pellet recommends that the washing be done 
in another room from where the polarizations are to be 
carried on. The reason being that the difference of 
temperature of the water used and the room would 
be sufficient to leave traces along the inner surface of 
the tube, which might alone be sufficient to influence 
the results. For washing the tube before using, it is 
proposed to use the liquid from the flask, K (Fig 43), 
which may be considered as an average for the day's 
observations. This funnel continuous-tube attachment 
may be applied to any polariscope, but should be made 
to exactly suit the requirements. The space necessary 
is about 25 to 30 m. m. greater than would be needed 
for an ordinary tube. 

Continuous Polarization. 

In beet-seed selecting laboratories, the Pellet con- 
tinuous tube for polariscope has been a most important 
innovation. By the use of a polariscope and an ordi- 
nary observation tube, in the hands of an expert, 1000 
readings have been made in twelve hours. Several 
assistants are frequently needed to accomplish these 
results, since about 50 such tubes are necessary. These 
have to be carefully filled, screwed together, emptied 
and washed; frequent accidents occur and the item of 



118 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

expense is considerable. There are two kinds of con- 
tinuous tubes, viz., with funnel, or with siphon. For 
each of these models may be used two tubes; one with 
an interior diameter of 7 to 8 m. m. and containing 13 
to 18 c. c. of liquid suitable for beets as they are 
received at the factory; or the other type, which is 
much smaller, containing only 6 to 7 c. c. of liquid and 
having a diameter of 5 m. m., while with the latter the 
weight of pulp under observation need be only 
16.29-^-4 grams. 

A few words of explanation respecting the funnel 
continuous-tube attachment is most important. The 
general arrangement is shown in engraving (Fig. 43). 

f 



% 




Fig. 43. Continuous tube for polariscope. 

The funnel (f) is attached to the slanting tube of the 
polariscope by a suitable rubber joint; at the other 
extremity is a slightly curved glass tube. When the 
tube is placed in position, it should be filled with water 
slightly alkaline, which removes all traces of grease. 
Through the tube is then run 200 c. c. of distilled 
water, containing a few drops of acetic acid; the excess 
of water runs into flask K, and subsequently into 
bucket E. Either the tube contains air bubbles, or it 
does not; if not, it is then ready for active work. 
Considerable care is needed in adjusting the tube, so 
that the reading of the polariscope will be zero. There 
is always danger of leaks, consequently the pressure 
necessary on the ends may, in a measures, be changed. 



CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 119 

Analysis of Beet Juices in the Legras Laboratory. 

The polarization is unique, rapid, and most inter- 
esting, two instruments being in constant use, and tn 
connection with them the Pellet continuous tube* is 
employed. It, however, differs from the one just 
described, and is known as the siphon method; it is 
shown in engraving (Fig. 44). The arrangement is 
most simple, a rubber emptying tube at one end, and 
at the other a covered glass tube with rubber attach- 
ment. To the filtrates in glasses are added a few drops 
of pure acetic acid; the glasses are carried to the sac- 
charimeters in six baskets of twenty compartments 
each. The number assigned to the beet at the com- 
mencement when it entered the laboratory is carefully 
continued through the entire series of manipulations 
to which the samples, juices, etc., are submitted. 

The assistant places the rubber tube in one of 
these conical glasses, precaution being taken to slightly 
slant the glass, so as to give a greater depth of penetra- 
tion to the juice. On the emptying tube is a Mohr 
pinch-cock; this is opened when the chemist is ready 
to make a new observation and the sugar solution is 
siphoned into the continuous tube. The assistant 
changes the glass for another with a fresh sample 
before it is entirely empty ; otherwise, there w r ould be a 
loss of time, due to the siphoning of all the juice in the 
circuit. About eight observations may be made per 
minute. Precautionary measures must be taken to 
screen the observer's eyes from the brilliant light of a 
lamp placed in front of the instrument; this excellent 
arrangement is shown in the engraving. Under these 



*It must never be lost sight of, that the continuous method require* 
great care for its first working, that is to say, that the tubes with their 
attachments must be made by a person thoroughly familiar with the 
requirements. Many mistakes have been made by depending upon 
some contrivance furnished by a novice; furthermore, the results may 
vary with the chemist in charge, who had best make a preliminary 
practice on sugar solutions of known strength. The method is most 
excellent for mother selection, and is recommended by Pellet for all 
classes of polariscope work. 



120 



SUGAR EEET SEED. 




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CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 121 

conditions the fatigue from this constant work is very 
much lessened; many chemists use a large black 
obstructor. The reading of the vernier depends upon 
the light thrown upon it from an upper reflecting mir- 
ror. It is most desirable that the chemist doing the 
work be absolutely in the dark, and, as he is under 
great pressure, he should be relieved every few hours. 
Whenever the observer is changed the zero point of the 
instrument should be verified. 



CHAPTER VI. 
Soils for Seed Production. 

There are two questions to be considered which 
are important in beet-seed production: 1st, Soil that 
is to receive the so-called "Elite" seed, and that which 
is intended for the reception of mothers; we might add 
a third variety, that which is intended for close plant- 
ing, with a view to growing beets which are 
to have only a physical selection. From these 
there would follow the production of seed for 
the trade. There are certain special conditions for 
each case, but for the present we must consider them 
only from a general standpoint. It is desirable to have 
a rich, deep homogeneous soil; some agronomists go so 
far as to recommend one that is rich in organic matter, 
which, from our point of view, is a mistake. When 
possible, a typical soil should be rather dark in color 
and of an argillo-sandy texture. The subsoil should 
as nearly as possible have the same composition as the 
surface soil, and be possessed of a certain porosity, 
permitting easy drainage, which allows its working 
during all kinds of weather. 

If beets be cultivated on soils too highly manured 
or fertilized, or even of a gravelly texture, without 
depth, the shape of the resulting root will, necessarily, 
be irregular, and consequently, worthless for seed pro- 
duction, and would be thrown out during physical 
selection. We have heard it freely argued that when 
the question of soils for mothers is discussed, that the 
plant foods play only a very secondary role during seed 
development, that is, during the second year, so that 
most any soil answers the purpose for mother-planting. 

122 



SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 123 

This is evidently very misleading, for if such were the 
case, the leading seed producers would in Germany, 
FYance, etc., be found in many sections of the country, 
when, in reality, they centre around certain districts 
of Saxony, at Quedlinburg, or in the northern part of 
France, at Laon, for example. Furthermore, in Sax- 
ony the principal seed farms are on hills and never on 
bottom lands; so that it is only in very exceptional 
cases where ordinary beet lands should be devoted to 
seed production. Those soils which have yielded beets 
which were attacked by insects are most objectionable, 
either for sowing of Elite seed or transplanting selected 
mothers, etc.; the same attacks or ravages would 
necessarily continue, thus destroying all prospects 
of success. 

There are many other conditions in question of 
location of beet farms; for example, it must be miles 
away from anyone cultivating beets of any kind, or any 
plant that is likely to give a pollen which might form 
a hybrid with beets. It should be well protected 
against the winds. However, in this issue we differ 
with Knauer, who claims that winds in some cases are 
desirable, as they carry off the loose seed, leaving 
spaces for the remaining seed, which results in a 
stronger grain for those still adhering to the stalk. 
(There is in some centres a special money system of 
insurance against such losses through winds, etc). The 
location should be such as to receive directly the solar 
rays, meaning a southern exposure. 

It has been frequently noticed that soils shaded 
by trees do not permit mothers to grow in a satisfac- 
tory manner; hence, their inferior yield in seed under 
such conditions. The soil should not be too damp, as 
this latter state would make the growth too hardy. 
Under no circumstances should the location be near a 
town or village. With a proper soil, the mothers 
develop without much care when once started. They 



124 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

require land well and deeply worked in the fall, as the 
successful seed development, the second year, depends 
largely upon the looseness of the soil which is in close 
proximity to the roots. Autumn plowing to assure 
action of the winter ice, snow, etc., should never be 
neglected. It must not be forgotten that from supe- 
rior seed on a poor soil, very inferior results are 
obtained to those given by average seed upon 
superior soils. Recent experiments show that seed 
obtained from mothers testing 19.8 per cent, sugar on 
a poor, gravelly soil as a sub-stratum, yielded beets 
weighing only 160 grams and testing 14.6 per cent, 
sugar. On the other hand, on a rich, swampy soil the 
beets weighed 8.76 grams and polarized 13.6. The 
general characteristics of these two beets were so dif- 
ferent, no one would have supposed for one instant 
that they had the same origin, or common parent. 

Advantage of Uniformity in Composition of Soils. 

It does not necessarily follow that because the 
environments are not favorable now, that they cannot 
be made so by patience and the scientific use of ferti- 
lizers. No better example could be given of the possi- 
ble transformation of soils by scientific treatment than 
at Besny (Aisne), France. The writer has followed, 
since 1889, these methods as applied on the Legras 
beet-seed plantation, and the evolution during the past 
25 years would hardly have been thought possible, 
unless actually seen. Before the period when artificial 
or mineral fertilizers were known it could not have 
been done. 

The management of this farm, with a few patches 
here and there demanding special attention, was once 
far more difficult and complicated than at present, 
when the conditions are almost of a complete uniform- 
ity, the fertilizers having been so combined that one 
field or another offers about the same fertility and com- 



SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 125 

position — and may be considered as a uniform whole. 
The entire area is only 750 acres, which seems small 
as compared with a western ranch in the United States, 
but it is not desirable that this seed growing be con- 
ducted on too extensive a scale, as the details could 
not then be thoroughly watched. The advantages of 
this uniformity in soil composition are manifest when 
analyzing beets cultivated upon it, as the sugar per- 
centage of the resulting roots is nearly the same in one 
spot as in another. A mother when planted, will give 
seed of a variety that may be said to be standard 
or typical. 

If it were possible to introduce upon a large scale 
what has been accomplished at Besny, it would do 
away with all discussions between the manufacturer 
and farmer, as the roots furnished by one grower 
would be almost exactly the same as those furnished 
by another. However, this is not possible under 
existing American conditions, where each cultivator 
has his own views, and, in his own estimation, knows 
more than science can teach him. The difference in 
the sugar qualities of beets from the same seed mav be 
2 or 6 per cent., and the price paid for the roots varies 
proportionally. The problem M. Legras set out to 
accomplish was not an easy one; for portions of his 
land were poor, and, furthermore, covered with weeds, 
which had to be eradicated before intensive cultivation 
could be thought of, as fertilizers would only still fur- 
ther increase or stimulate their growth. Herein was 
the wisdom of the owner, whose argument was : "What 
money I spend on the one hand I shall reap on the 
other," and this has been accomplished, for there was 
hardly a weed visible between the rows of beets or 
mothers during the writer's last visit. The money 
saved now more than compensates for the first outlay 
for land cleaning. 



126 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

Fertilizers for Elite Seed and Mothers. 

When considering fertilizers for Elite seed, great 
care must be taken when using barnyard manure the 
fall before sowing, in order that there benounfermented 
particles of straw, for these might be the cause of con- 
siderable difficulty, resulting in very irregular beets. 
At certain French farms visited by the writer, oil cakes 
of various origins appear to be very popular; these are 
distributed in the spring, just before sowing, in quan- 
tities of iooo pounds to the acre, and should, under all 
circumstances, be thoroughly pulverized. The use of 
lime has rendered great service, for it destroys the bad 
effects of certain clays, about five tons to the acre being 
used, on an average. In October there should follow 
a thorough plowing. 

It is evident that the plant foods needed for beets 
to develop are not the same, as regards quantity, as 
required for mothers with the view to seed formation. 
It is to be regretted that this question has hitherto been 
neglected by seed growers. From what has been said 
in previous pages, the main effort always is to obtain 
a special fertilizer, suited to each section of the farm, 
so as to bring the whole up to a uniform standard. 
This can be accomplished only by strict watching of 
what has been taken away in potassa, phosphoric acid, 
nitrogen, etc. The question of fertilizers for beets has 
been discussed by many writers, but few agronomists 
have touched upon mothers in seed production during 
their several months in soil after planting. If the ques- 
tion of fertilizer has been neglected by seed growers, it 
it partly because information has been wanting. The 
decline in the fertility of a soil is always followed by 
deterioration in the quality of seed obtained; hence, 
success largely depends upon this plant food issue. The 
question has been thoroughly examined by M. Legras. 



SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 



127 



It is by the analysis of seed and stalk that one can learn 
exactly what the conditions are: 



Weight of stalk and seed 

Weight of stalk and seed when analyzed. 
Composition of 100 lbs. dry matter. 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric [acid 

Potassa 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Total ash 



Full 
Flower. 



2.16 Its. 
1.87 " 

1.551 

0.550 
1.868 
0.820 
0.806 
10.050 



Complete 
Maturity. 



2.48 lbs. 
2.05 " 

1.675 

0.435 
1.636 
0.860 
0.806 
9.750 



From this analysis it may be noticed that consid- 
erable transformation occurs between flowering and 
complete maturity of the seed; nitrogen and lime 
increase while all other elements decrease. The excess 
of nitrogen is evidently found in the germs of the seed. 
The most marked change may be noticed in the 
potassa. As these elements are extracted from the soil, 
they must be returned. No account need be taken of 
the mothers, which, after the stalks and seed have been 
cut off, may be considered as the corpses of their pre- 
vious state, they having completed their functions in 
acting as an intermediary between the soil and the 
growing stalk, and retain nearly all their original salts, 
etc., nitrogen alone having diminished. If these are 
plowed under, they take away nothing; if not, other 
facts must be considered. [An ordinary crop of 16 tons 
of beets averaging n per cent, sugar will extract (no 
allowance being made for leaves) per acre about: 
Potassa 105 lbs., phosphoric acid 21 lbs., soda 30 lbs., 
lime 16 lbs., magnesia 6 lbs., chlorine 2,7 lbs., sulphuric 
acid 9 lbs., silica 44 lbs., nitrogen 97 lbs., organic sub- 
stances 1590 lbs., water 29,000 lbs.] 

By the Legras method of cultivation each mother 
can draw its plant food from about nine square feet. 
Along the edge of the field must not be counted; con- 
sequently, it is not desirable to allow for more than 
4000 plants per acre. Such being the case, the seeds 
and stalks will extract from the soil: Nitrogen, 123 lbs.; 



128 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

potassa, 120 lbs.; phosphoric acid, 32 lbs.; lime, 63 lbs.; 
magnesia, 59 lbs. It would be a great mistake to 
adhere strictly to these figures, and it is evident that 
the fertilizer for mothers must be very intensive. The 
mixtures used on the soil at Besny are the outcome of 
considerable experience. To retain the general uni- 
formity in their composition, after the crops of seeds 
are harvested, there is added per acre 130 to 180 lbs. 
sodic nitrate (containing 15.5 to 16 per cent, nitrogen), 
130 to 180 lbs.potassic chloride (containing 56 to 57 per 
cent, potassa), 180 to 260 lbs. double sulphate of potassa 
and magnesia (containing 2.7 per cent, potassa, 25 per 
cent, magnesia), 70 to 75 lbs. nitrogenous substances 
(blood, oil cake, etc.), 540 to 600 lbs. furnace slag 
(18 per cent, phosphoric acid), which is several times 
in excess of what is needed. 

It is interesting to note that M. Legras insists 
that 90 lbs. nitrogen per acre is an excess, the differ- 
ence between it and what has been or what will be 
absorbed may be subsequently added. This precau- 
tion is necessary to make sure that the seed will 
mature in the regular number of months, excess of 
nitrogen seeming to retard maturity; the same cannot 
be said of phosphoric acid, for the plant absorbs what 
it requires for its complete development, and no more. 

On the fertilizer question for mothers there is cer- 
tainly a great difference of opinion; for example, Dippe 
Brothers give preference to one containing 176 lbs. 
sodic nitrate, 350 lbs. guano (4 per cent, nitrogen, 13 
per cent, phosphoric acid). At Wanzleben and at 
Grobers (Knauer), they favor green manuring, vetch, 
peas, etc., which are planted and plowed under, so that 
the land remains fallow during a considerable period. 
It is claimed that the weeds contained in the soil are 
smothered, and there is a very large quantity of nitro- 
gen absorbed. In combination with the green manur- 
ing, potassa and phosphates are used in the spring 



SOILS FOR SEED PRODl'CTIOX. 129 

before planting. In certain French districts visited by 
the writer, the fertilizers for mothers which are most 
popular are used in the following quantities, calculated 
to areas of one acre: 

f Barnyard manure 16 tons 

- ! Sodic nitrate 350 tt.s. 

j Superphosphate of lime 396 " 

^ Colza oil cake 132 " 

„ ( Barnyard manure 20 tons. 

" ( Ammonia sulphate 246 lbs. 

, l Barnyard manure 20 tons. 

6 \ Sodic nitrate 330 lbs. 

f Barnyard manure 16 tons. 

4 J Sodic nitrate 350 lbs. 

] Superphosphate 508 " 

i^Potassic chloride 132 " 

Whatever be the system of the fertilization of the 
soil, it is desirable not to use the plant food in excess, 
since this would result in a second growth of stalks and 
a corresponding decrease in the quality of seed. 

Relations Between Soils and Fertilizers. 

, The formula of a fertilizer should vary with the 
composition of the soil upon which it is to be 
used. Without going into extensive arguments 
respecting soils and fertilizers in general, it will 
be far more interesting to give an example 
taken from practice. The beet plantation of 
M. Legras, as previously explained, was made up of 
small areas having very different textures and compo- 
sitions, the variation being far greater than a general 
survey of the land would lead one to believe. 
The maximum and minimum of the five essential ele- 
ments requisite for fertility, as determined by chemical 
analysis of these soils, are here given: 



Nitrogen 

Phosphoric acid. 

Potassa 

Lime 

Magnesia 



Maximum. 


Minimum. 


0.13 


0.08 


0.25 


0.06 


0.40 


0.22 


13.40 


0.90 


0.51 


0.15 



There were to contend with: 1st, argillo-calcare- 
ous; 2d, sandy: 3d, verv calcareous soils. The fertil- 
9 



130 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

izer used had to increase or diminish these elements 
so as to create uniformity. Consider, for example, the 
case where there was only 0.06 phosphoric acid as 
compared with 0.25 per cent, contained in another 
patch. On the farm at Besny it was found desirable 
irom the start to use 2500 lbs. of furnace slag per 
acre, which was well plowed under. The results 
obtained were up to expectations, showing that science 
and practice do pull together. To follow, in its intri- 
cate details how the typical fertilizer was determined in 
each case by numerous experiments and observations, 
would carry the reader too far away from the 
general subject now under discussion. The con- 
clusions, upon general principles, were that for argillo- 
calcareous and very calcareous soils, nitrogen and 
potassa must predominate, while for sandy soils phos- 
phoric acid plays a most active part. A system of 
rotation has been adopted; hence, the use of fertilizers, 
such as blood, waste from woolen factories, etc., may 
be advantageously applied a year or more previous to 
mother planting or beet cultivation. 

On most American farms fertilizers receive but a 
secondary consideration. Compare this condition 
with the annual use of 1760 tons of barnyard manure, 
220 tons of leaves and necks from a crop of beets, 950 
tons defecation scums from beet-sugar factories, 52 
tons sodic nitrate, 15 tons sulphate of ammonia, 30 tons 
fish guano, 60 tons oil cake, 161 tons woolen waste, 
10 tons dried blood, 24 tons potassic chloride, 21 tons 
double phosphate of potassa and magnesia, 108 tons 
furnace slag, 60 tons phosphate and 9 tons super- 
phosphate. All this for 750 acres of land. As regards 
rotation of crops, no definite method has been adopted 
at Besny; the beet, however, appears most frequently, 
and by the scientific use of fertilizers, 250 acres culti- 
vated in beets average 12 tons to the acre and 16 per 
cent, sugar. 



SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 131 

Sowing of Seed for Mothers. 

This question of sowing seed for mothers should 
in reality be discussed from many points of view, for 
there are numerous kinds of ihothers to be consid- 
eied. If the question of beet-seed production is taken 
up from the start, then the seed must be purchased 
elsewhere; thus the sowing would be of one variety. 
After mothers are selected and the first crop of seed 
has been obtained from them, there are many dif- 
ferent systems of sowing. We refer not only to spac- 
ing, but to the distance between the lines; the Elite are 
kept much closer together than those roots w T hich 
have been analyzed, but yield, say 15 per cent, sugar, 
and which are to furnish seed for the beets only after 
the third year. On the other hand, the Elite, on which 
the seed producer centres his attention, demands spe- 
cial care, not only in the manner in which the hand 
sowing is done, but during every stage of the plants' 
development; open spaces, etc., are most care- 
fully avoided. 

Upon general principles, better results are 
obtained by hand sowing than is possible through the 
careful use of a seed drill; the spacing can be made 
almost mathematical. Those roots that are raised in 
the general field from purchased seed, or from seed 
of all kinds that has been produced on the farm, 
which are separated from the rest, should never be 
included in the observations for physical or chemical 
selection. Their conditions of development being 
different, would lead to poor results as the work pro- 
gressed in the creation of a special type. The square 
method of sowing, consequently, has greater advan- 
tages over beets cultivated in rows, where their spac- 
ing is not the same as the distance between rows; the 
misses then (by square methods) have not the same 
importance, for the roots are all absorbing from the 
soil about the same amount of plant food. In France, 



132 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

it is recommended that the sowing be done as soon as 
possible. If the temperature is lower than 8 degrees 
C (46. 4 F.), germination is not satisfactory; in the 
Elite sowing, they constantly use 44 lbs. to the acre, 
and keep the lines about eight inches apart. 

There is a great difference of opinion in regard to 
the spacing of Elite seed. With the view of keeping 
down the size of the roots, some growers attempt a 
distance of four to five inches; then again eight inches 
in every direction, or eight inches between lines and 
four inches between beets in the rows. The number of 
roots is estimated to be 174,000 per acre, but such 
numbers are in reality never realized. After sowing, 
the seed is covered by three-fourths inches of earth, 
followed by rolling. In Germany, there seem to be 
many advocates of sowing seed for mothers directly 
after wheat in the rotation. There also are many advo- 
cates of successive rollings of the ground after sowing; 
at Grobers, they plant their rows from twelve to four- 
teen inches apart. Successive and frequent hoeing is 
everywhere very popular; this, on many European 
farms, is done by women. The hoes used are about 4J 
inches wide; later, they frequently use a hand-pushing 
cultivator, increasing the depth each time the 
operation is done. The spacing demands some experi- 
ence, and cannot be conducted by novices, such as 
used in ordinary sugar-beet cultivation. When the 
roots have a certain size, and show certain indications 
of degeneracy, they are, in some cases, removed from 
the field, and replaced by others cultivated under the 
same conditions on special patches. 

A fact which must never be overlooked, is the 
great care to be given at every stage, up to the time of 
harvesting, which is done as under ordinary circum- 
stances of beet cultivation. 



SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION". 



133 



Preparing Soil, Planting of Mothers, and Care 
During Their Development. 

When the cultivation for the reception of mothers 
is considered, it is generally found that the best results 
are obtained when these beets follow wheat in the 
rotation. We shall now take as an excellent practice, 
that which we found at the Besny farm. It must not 
be forgotten that sugar-beet cultivation for an 
adjoining factory at Laon has attained a degree of 
perfection quite equal to that of the separate 
agricultural question of seed growing. For, if mothers 




tig. 45, Tlan of field, showing position of mothers. 

are not of a high saccharine quality, the resulting seed 
will not be, and, as by Legras's method of selection, all 
roots under 14 per cent, sugar are not used, the 
average obtained is considerably above fourteen. 

To attempt the creation of a variety of beet that 
demands great depth of soil, would certainly never 
have become popular, and would have been a mistake, 
but to centre all efforts on an average type suitable to 
a soil not too deep, nor too shallow, fulfilling the 
requirements of most cases, is what has been sought 



134 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

after, and what has been attained, on the farm visited 
by the writer. The method of cultivation adopted is, 
as before mentioned, to give a thorough plowing 
during the winter prior to planting, after the fertilizers 
have been well plowed under. As regards plowing, 
it is interesting to note that this should not be done 
during wet weather, and the upper surface should be 
thoroughly harrowed, the vegetable strata, so to speak, 
thus becoming greater every year. The operation of 
marking the position for each mother is then com- 
menced. A special cultivator is used, the distance 
between colters being three feet during first horizontal 
direction, then, when tracing the vertical lines, i£ 
feet. This operation is made clear by referring to the 
diagram (Fig. 45). The lines meet at a, b, c, d and c, 
a', b', c', d' and c'. Mothers that have been waiting for 
several months in the silo are brought with great care 
to be planted (the nearer the silo is, the better the result) 
at a, c, and e, on line A B, and at b' d' on line A' B/ thus 
alternating for all other rows. The mothers are con- 
sequently placed at the angles of a lozenge, cb' c"d' y 
the distance c' c" being three feet, while c' d' is i\ feet. 
The beet can draw its plant food from an area of nine 
square feet.* The respective position of the beets 
permits the frequent use of the cultivator in the direc- 
tion shown by the arrow's in the diagram (Fig. 45). The 
position of the roots is such, that even after a pro- 
longed drouth they remain in a flourishing condition; 
this is, in part, due to the careful selection of mothers, 
since, under all circumstances, the roots w r eigh from 
one to two pounds each, very small roots not being 



*This distance between beets is a very variable question. Ort 
Knauer's farm he gives preference to distances of 63 to 78 c. m. (24.6 to 
30.4 inches). Squares of two feet are said also to give satisfactory 
results. The roots are planted on the angles of said squares. Fiihllng, 
however, contends that the rectangle, 24x34 inches, gives the best 
results. The marking of the field is done with a harrow in two 
directions, and at the intersection of lines the mothers are placed. 
For digging holes to place the mothers a special spade is used. 



SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 135 

used. Very small roots are never to be relied upon, 
because they mean a stunted growth, and will yield 
seeds that would give mothers possessing the 
same characteristics. 

We have always insisted upon the fact that, in 
many cases, there were great advantages in the culti- 
vation in hills. Herr Marek, in very extended 
experiments, has shown that beets selected for mothers 
which have been obtained in hills, are richer in sugar, 
and transmit their qualities with greater ease than 
beets obtained by flat cultivation. 

The planting is done in March, this varying 
somewhat according to years, but under all circum- 
stances it should be as early as possible, and the roots 
used for mothers must be thoroughly matured. During 
the first stage of the plant development, a hand hoeing 
between the rows i-J feet apart is very important, as 
later on the cultivator cannot reach these points; after 
four or five days, this hoeing is followed by a second 
hoeing. As soon as the stalks commence to appear, a 
powerful cultivator, drawn by oxen, is run between the 
rows as frequently as possible, this operation being 
discontinued only when the passage is obstructed by 
the luxuriant vegetation; the stalks should not, in any 
way, be disturbed after the flower forms. The 
natural result of this working is to open up the soil, and 
thus place it in an excellent condition for the mothers 
to draw all the plant food they require. 

This planting of mothers is also a very delicate 
operation. The mothers which have been selected must 
be free from bruises of any kind; they are carried to the 
fields in baskets, in gangs; a special spade is used for 
making the hole to receive each mother. It is generally 
found desirable to plant the mothers in a slanting 
direction; in this manner they are better able to resist 
the action of variable winds. The tip end of the 
mothers may, when too long, be cut off, but it is, in all 



136 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 



m 



■ 



Ph W 



$ 



SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 137 

cases, desirable not to turn them under. Before press- 
ing with the foot, it is thought advisable to throw a 
certain amount of earth near the neck. This earth 
should cover the necks to a depth of I, 2-J to 3 c. m. 
(0.39 to 1. 1 8 inches), with the view of protecting the 
mothers against the frequent late frosts after planting 
season. Instead of earth around the necks, it is fre- 
quently customary to mix the earth with pulverized 
bone. Hilling up, from time to time, is also advisable. 
This planting of mothers may be done in France for 
$2.00 an acre. 

To many it may be a surprise that such a large 
area, L, M, N, 0*, (Fig. 45) of nine square feet, is 
necessary, but an inspection of the engraving (Fig. 46) 
shows the ramifications of mothers during their effort 
to secure from their environment all the essential 
elements for the development of stalks, flowers, and 
seed. These lateral radicles run from the root proper a 
distance of three feet, so that even allowing the enor- 
mous volume of earth of a surface area of i^ feet, in 
all directions, the plant food is drawn from the soil 
far beyond the prescribed limits previously mentioned, 
and, such being the case, all the roots of the field are 
apparently in communication one with the other. It 
is interesting to note a custom which has led to 
excellent results, which consists of twisting or break- 
ing off the lateral and central stalks, it being 
maintained that this custom favors flowering. 

As these mothers have considerable money value, 
endless means are frequently resorted to for their 
protection during seed development; nematode inva- 
sions might, in some cases, be a serious issue. 
Hence, the reason why chicory is planted on the outer 



♦The Chinese have for hundreds of years xinderstood the impor- 
tance of these small roots for many plants which they cultivate. 
"When planting bi-annuals, small slices are made in the root proper, 
thus increasing the number of radicles which soon develop. 



138 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

limits of a seed farm ; this acts as a trap for the enemy 
and answers the purpose. At Klein-Wanzleben and in 
other centres, excellent precautions are taken for pro- 
tection against climatic conditions, which consist of a 
wire roof covering over the entire field of Elites. This 
should be sufficiently high to allow a free passage 
under; outer wire fences are also used to keep off 
rabbits, etc. 

Harvesting. — The harvesting of mothers culti- 
vated for special laboratory purposes, does not, on 
general principles, very much differ from the harvest- 
ing of beets for an ordinary sugar factory. Special 
harvesters, or plows, may be used for the purpose, the 
beets collected with great care and placed in baskets; 
the slightest bruise may have a very important influ- 
ence. The cost of this harvesting in France is about 
$13 per acre. The harvesting of seed is a more com- 
plicated question. It must not be put off too long and 
should be done during dry weather, for if the seeds and 
stalks are wet when taken indoors, the ultimate 
value will be decreased, owing to a decrease in the 
germinating power. 

The first sign of maturity is when the fruit com- 
mences to turn brown, and if, weather permitting, this 
changes to yellow, the ripening process may even con- 
tinue later. The determination of percentage Of dry 
substances is an indication of maturity; 60 per cent, is 
the standard. Knauer says that beet seed are ripe when 
they have a flour-like taste when bitten into. If the 
complete maturity is awaited, a considerable number 
of seed will necessarily be lost, owing to their very 
slight adherence to their stems; hence, the reason why 
many recommend that the stalks be harvested green. 
The cutting of stalks, or stems, on the field is shown 
in engraving (Fig. 47). An ordinary sickle and not a 
spade is used; the principal objection to the latter is 
the excessive shaking of the stalk. It is advisable to 



SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 



139 




140 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

put off as long as possible the cutting of green stalks, 
as they mature better on the beet proper. The cutting 
gang is followed by another, who collect the stems, or 
stalks, on the ground and tie them into bundles. They 
are stacked vertically upon the field and left to dry. 

Practical experience shows that this drying is 
more complete when the bundles face the north, thus 
taking advantage of northerly winds. When the drying 
is sufficiently complete, several weeks being often 
necessary, they are taken to special sheds. The appear- 
ance of stacks is shown in engraving (Fig. 48). 

The writer thought it of interest to be on the 
Legras farm prior to harvesting. The sight of the 
fields is never to be forgotten, it being very unique, and 
differing from any other crop known to the farmer; it 
is unlike wheat, corn, or cereals in general, leaving, as 
it were, open spaces, through which light penetrates, 
so that the ground can be seen between many plants 
or stalks at the same time. The field seems to 
form a uniform whole, consisting of a mass of 
green, soft, and velvety substance, the centres at reg- 
ular intervals being clearly defined. The clusters of 
seed upon the stalks were like gems distributed in 
myriads, reflecting the rays of the sun. The stalks 
appeared to be so loaded with seed that they were bent 
over toward the ground, those of one mother having 
joined hands with its neighbor, apparently asking for 
support. M. Sagnier, in the Journal de V Agriculture, 
says that during his visit to Besny he counted eighteen 
to twenty-three stalks per mother. 

As an example of the amount of seed that roots 
may yield, five clusters were counted, the average seed 
being one pound per root. In regard to the mother 
planting, it is interesting to note that it always follows 
a crop of beets. Upon general principles, if it is simply 
desired to produce beet seed by ordinary process, the 
question of economy in space upon the fields, is of sec- 



SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION" ■ 



141 




142 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

ondary importance, but when each beet is selected with 
special care, and destined to furnish seed for the 
trade, all conditions favoring its development during 
seed formation should be thoroughly examined and 
attended to. Under these conditions, from 2000 to 
2600 lbs. of well-cleaned beet seed may be obtained 
per acre. 

Above 2000 lbs., the yield is considered very good; 
below 1600 lbs., poor. (This yield of 2000 lbs. costs, 
in France, under best conditions, 34 cents per lb.* 
Besides this, some allowance must be made for interest 
of money during the keeping, and on the capital which 
remains idle during the several years the selection is 
being made. By Legras's method, results are obtained 
much more rapidly, but the cost of laboratory analyses 
is greater, etc., hence, the reason why such seed com- 
mands a high price on the market.) Such yields, 
through the exceptional care given, have been 
obtained even in exceedingly dry weather, as the soil, 
having been so thoroughly worked, remains moist, 
even during long periods of drouth. The crop that 
follows the mothers is wheat. It is necessary to remove 
the corpses of mothers, also the stems; then use 
the extirpator, followed by the cultivator and harrow. 
The economy of time and work are important facts to 
be considered, and the cost of land preparation for 
mothers should be borne by the crop that follows. It is 
important to note that if mothers follow beets in the 
rotation, they will be attacked by some insects, and the 
seed will subsequently suffer. If the insects attack the 
flower of the beet, no remedy is better than solutions 
of two degrees Be. of tobacco juice, spread by a pul- 
verizer, emulsion of petroleum, benzine, charcoal pow- 
der, saturated in tobacco juice. 



*But on most seed-producing: farms not more than four cents. In 
the case of A. J. Legras, the product is frequently all sold in advance 
and very difficult to procure even in quantities sufficient for experi- 
mental purposes. 



SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 143 

It is interesting to note that the time when the 
flowers appear depends upon the country and the total 
heat the mothers have had at their disposal during 
their second .year's growth. It may be said, however, 
that those appearing during the first of August should 
be pinched off, as they will, in general, yield inferior 
seed. Fuhling recommends the harvesting of all 
matured stalks. The ends of the remaining semi-green 
stems are also pinched off; this practice tends to hasten 
maturity. Some agronomists recommend the cutting 
of stems from the roots and leaving the latter in the 
ground as a manure; but this practice is a mistake. 
The mothers, having been separated from the stems, 
form but a poor fertilizer. Insects are attracted by 
them, and frequently deposit their eggs therein; and 
resulting larvae are likely to do much harm to the sub- 
sequent crop. On some beet farms roots and stems 
are harvested together; it is advisable to shake them 
over a linen receptacle, and in this manner the loose 
seed is separated from the stem. The roots and stems 
are then hung up to dry, the vegetation continues for 
some little time, and the non-matured seed is soon 
entirely ripe. 

It is generally desirable to do the shelling 
during very dry, cold w T eather. The operation 
required some skill in former times. Archard advised 
rubbing the stems between the hands, and to subse- 
quently pass the whole through a sieve, in order to 
eliminate the dried leaves and other impurities. The 
operation of shelling, as is now practiced, is carried on 
by women and children. The stalks with seed are 
drawn through two jaws with saw-like teeth; the upper 
jaw is held with the left hand, and a slight pressure 
is given. 

It is customary to give the stalks before this oper- 
ation a preliminary threshing on the floor; a practice 
about which there is much to be said. The objection 



144 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

to the hand shelling is, that it takes so long, and in 
countries where labor is high this is evidently a very 
objectionable feature. Mechanical shelling is used by 
some and much condemned by others. The' main 
objection is, the very broken or mutilated condition in 
which the seeds are left; a thorough fanning is most 
important. Seed may be partly separated from their 
stems by the use of an endless oscillating moving 
apron; this is fed from a hopper. The seeds roll off, 
while the impurities adhering to the apron are thrown 
upon the ground at the other end of the machine; a 
system of sorting may be combined with this. The 
idea is to have a double slanting apron, the heavy seeds 
traveling the farthest. 

The shelling and cleaning may be done at one- 
half cent per pound. The cleaned seed is now kept in 
some dry, well-ventilated room, beyond the reach of 
rats and mice. On many farms it is hung up in bags 
to the ceiling, and when dried, is kept in bags or bar- 
rels, as the case may be. When in piles, it should be 
constantly turned over, so as to bring it as much as 
possible in contact with the air. Of late years it is 
found desirable to submit seed to a hot-air drying proc- 
ess, so that it may, within the least possible interval, 
have the standard per cent, of moisture. There remain 
in the way of stalks about 3000 lbs. to the acre; 
this residuum is rich in potassa and contains, 
also, phosphoric acid. It may be used as bedding for 
animals at the farm. On the other hand, the waste 
from beet seed cleaning may render excellent service 
in cattle feeding.* In conclusion, we would say that 
we recommend that all beet-seed producers submit 
their seed to a germinating test before allowing them 
to leave their premises. Furthermore, we insist that the 
purchaser make his test on the same lines as the seed 



* See Chapter on "Old Seed Utilization." 



SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 1-15 

grower, thus avoiding numerous subsequent dis- 
cussions. 

Approximate Cost and Yield of Seed in Germany 
and Austria. 

Between 135 and 140 days are required for 
the seed to develop and to be harvested, from the time 
the mother is planted. The yield in Austria and Ger- 
many is 2000 to 3500 lbs. of seed per acre. A single 
beet is known to have given 43,000 individual seeds, 
but this is an exception. According to Briem, the 
yield of beet seed in Silesia averages 1832 kilos per 
hectare (1612 lbs. per acre); in Bohemia, 1945 kilos 
(171 1 lbs. per acre). The success depends upon many 
causes, among which are fertilization, soil, etc. 

The cost of cultivation is approximately as follows: 

1st year, 27,000 mothers— cost of planting 0.6 acres $ 36.00 

Value of the roots 35.00 

Harvesting, selecting, siloing, etc 125.00 

$ 196.00 

2d year, selecting 337.00 

Planting 2% acres, grandmothers 120.00 

457.00 

3d year, 20 acres seed 800.00 

4th year, 200 acres, mothers — general expense 10,000.00 

Other expenses, chemists, etc., etc 1,977.00 

$13,430.00 
With no allowance for interest and packing. 

The yield of seed would be 200x2000 lbs., equal 
to 400,000 lbs., which means that the cost per pound is 
about 3 J cents, or more correctly, allowing for other 
expenses, four cents per pound. This supposes, as 
these calculations show, that we start out with a small 
area devoted to mothers; the production of these is not 
considered in the calculation. The sowing of seed the 
third year is on an area many times that began 
with, and the fourth year only the seed is obtained. 

Silos for Mothers. 

The requisites for the proper construction of silos 
for mothers, are very much the same as for beets to be 
10 



146 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

worked at the factory; there are several essential con- 
ditions, however, which must not be overlooked. The 
cost of keeping beets that have been selected for seed- 
ing purposes is very slight, once the silos are made; 
but the care in placing them in piles being greater than 
ordinary conditions, the item of additional labor is not 
to be overlooked. There are really three silos in con- 
nection with beet-seed growing. One made up with 
beets which have undergone the physical selection on 
the fields, and the others after final physical and chem- 
ical selection combined. As such beets frequently 
contain 18 to 19 per cent, of sugar, special care should 
be given to their keeping and to the silos containing 
beets which are to furnish seed for the trade. Under 
ordinary conditions of seed production, the beets which 
are to be used for this special purpose are simply beets 
which have been obtained from the seed of selected 
mothers; in other words, the second generation of those 
roots which underwent laboratory chemical selection. 
Silos in this case are made on the level of the 
ground, in the direction of the beet rows. Spaces of 
about 90 to 120 feet should be left between each silo. 
Beets on most beet-seed farms are siloed with their 
leaves; the piles are 4J feet at the bottom, 2.\ feet at 
the top, and about three feet in height, which means 
that the sides are slanting. The whole is covered with 
2.\ feet of earth; suitable vertical ventilators are neces- 
sary, and under no circumstances should these be over- 
looked. From one acre the beets can be placed in 
silos of a total length of about 300 feet; the cost of the 
operation in several European centres is about $10 per 
acre. We consider that it is certainly a great mistake 
to let the leaves stay on the beets. The best results 
are certainly obtained by cutting them off with a knife 
about an inch above the neck, care being taken not to 
mutilate the heart. On most German farms visited by 
the writer, the silos for mothers are much smaller than 



SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 147 

the French types just mentioned. In most cases they 
have a capacity of only a few tons, the laboratory selec- 
tion taking place in the spring. 

These silos are sunk ij feet in the earth and are 
four feet wide, the necks slanting upward; about 
18 inches of earth are piled on top; the covering 
should be flat, so that some moisture from rains, etc., 
may readily penetrate. Knauer claims that if the root 
be moistened it will keep better in silos; precaution 
alone being necessary to prevent stagnant water. Dur- 
ing very dry seasons, the piles of mothers may be 
watered; the water carries the earth down to surround 
each beet. When the total covering of silos with 2\ 
feet of earth is finished, during very cold winters, it 
may be found desirable to still further cover with barn- 
yard manure. The opening of the silos depends upon 
the method of selection. Knauer says that selected 
beets in well conducted silos should be placed one 
against the other, and not one on top of the other. This 
covering, upon general principles, would seem to be a 
bad practice; for the weight of earth has a tendency 
to crush the beets and thus bring about considerable 
changes in the entire pile; this is the reason why many 
advocate straw and a thin covering of earth. 

Considerable experience is needed to know just 
when to place the beets in silos. Better select a very dry 
day; if rainy,^the beets siloed in their wet condition 
would in most cases undergo fermentation.. On the 
other hand, if exposed to the sun too long ; the roots 
wilt and the chemical selection that follows would be 
very misleading, as the sugar percentage would appear 
to be higher than the reality. Under all circumstances, 
loss of sugar percentage occurs during the months the 
roots are kept; hence the reason why the chemical 
selection should take place early. Arguments in favor 
of late selection, showing which roots have keeping 
qualities, are not as reliable as one would wish. Expe- 



148 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 




SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 149 

rience has shown that it is not to the seed producer's 
advantage to attempt the creation of the very elon- 
gated varieties. They are difficult to properly arrange 
in silos and their tip ends are most always broken dur- 
ing harvesting, and if not then, they would be broken 
when placed in silos. 

At the Laon beet-selecting laboratory, the main 
object in view is to commence analysis as soon as pos- 
sible and to have the roots well siloed before the very 
cold weather. Herewith (Fig. 49) is shown how the 
piles are made, and the necessary care given to 
their construction. 

The beets are brought in baskets direct from the 
laboratory and then piled with necks pointing outward. 
It is not desirable to make these piles more than three 
feet high; their section is that of a triangle, and when 
of the desired height and shape they are covered with 
earth, and remain during the several months of cold 
weather until March or April, when planted. The slow 
method adopted in most selecting laboratories neces- 
sitates the opening and closing of the silo made upon 
the field during the entire winter; this practice, as may 
be imagined, is followed by many complications and 
poor results; all of which, by Legras's method, is 
avoided, as the analyses commence in January and 
finish in February, after the sugar campaign has termi- 
nated. It must never be forgotten that there are certain 
precautions to be taken in the laboratory in order to 
assure the keeping of beets in silos, viz., the hole made 
by the rasp or sampler should be most carefully filled 
with clay or charcoal, and the roots handled with care, 
so as to prevent bruises. The slightest mutilation means 
organic changes during the several months they remain 
covered awaiting planting season. 

Chemical Changes During Second Year's Growth. 

Do mothers, after seed is harvested, still retain 
sugar? This question is frequently asked and many 



150 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

discussions have followed respecting it. The weight 
of authority appears to be that the sugar has entirely 
disappeared. If this issue be examined on a rational 
basis, it will be found that the life of the beet terminates 
with the seed; the functions being complete, the root 
soon rots — no sugar can then be found. However, 
cases have been cited when one to one-half per cent, 
appears to remain. A simple experiment to show 
that the sugar disappears as the stems, etc., continue 
their development, is to cut off the stems as fast as they 
appear; it will not require many months before all the 
sugar will have left the root. M. H. Leplay has given 
the subject considerable attention, and it is interesting 
to follow what is said upon the subject and the con- 
clusions drawn. 

The beets upon which the observations were made 
were in an excellent condition, and had been cultivated 
on a calcareous soil. When harvested, the leaves were 
twisted off and then remained untouched; the roots 
were planted in May and examined during various 
periods of their vegetation. The density of the juice 
constantly decreased in the root; when the mothers 
were planted it was 1050.7; June 7, 1042; June 30, 1037; 
July 17, 1033; August 22, 102 1. During the same 
period there was an increase of the density of juice 
from the stalks and then in the leaves. Analyses of 
different parts of the plant just at the period when, the 
leaves were forming, gave the following: 



Portions Analyzed. 



Root . . . 
Neck ... 
Stems.. 
Leaves 



Weight. 



Density of 
Juice. 



610 grams. 1.02n 



210 

1.090 kilos. 

0.500 



l.Cr/u 
1.027 
1.034 



Sugar 
Per Cent, 



0.&5 
0.75 



As mentioned above, when the period of develop- 
ment advances, the sugar percentage diminishes as 
soon as the leaves appear, then remains constant. Then 
comes a time after the seeds are formed that more sugar 
is formed in the stems and leaves; little remains in 



SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 151 

the root proper. (Even during the early history of 
the beet-sugar industry Peligot insisted that sugar dis- 
appears as soon as seeds are matured.) Respecting 
seed formation through the intervention of the stems, 
very little is known. One might conclude from the 
fact just mentioned that the seed had absorbed the 
sugar, but such is not the case, it having been proven 
that most of the sugar passes into small side roots, 
which always show themselves. 

Salts and vegetable acids, with a basis of potassa, 
exist in the juice of different portions of the plant. 
The quantity contained in the beet, after completing 
its second year's growth, is about double what it was 
after the first year. Lime, salts and soluble vegetable 
acids, and lime of an insoluble organic combination, are 
to be found in all portions of the plant. The tissues 
of the leaves and their stems appear to contain more 
of the lime combinations the second than during the 
first year's vegetation. Green seeds also contain a 
large amount of lime in an insoluble combination. 
During this second year, there is, without doubt, an 
upward movement of potassic and lime salts contained 
in the soil, and this in passing through the leaves and 
stems has the seed ultimately in view. During this 
period, carbonic acid and bicarbonates contained in 
the soil enter the root by the adhering radicles; the 
transformations which occur appear to be very like 
those of the first year. 

As the mothers can supply only one-tenth of 
the potassic and lime salts needed for seed formation, 
the remaining nine-tenths must be drawn from the 
soil. The potassa has for its principal function the 
formation of the seed, while lime helps in the forma- 
tion of tissue. A question we hear constantly asked 
is, Have not these salts some direct and constant rela- 
tion or important influence upon the quality of seed 
obtained, considered from a basis of sugar percentage 



152 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

in the mothers? In the recent writings of Strohmer 
and Stift, they declare that the mothers during the 
second year's growth produce large quantities of new 
organic substances; the root has not within itself suf- 
ficient resources; these must be furnished. Phos- 
phoric acid is utilized in the production of the stems 
and leaves, and nitrogen for the seed. 



CHAPTER VII. 
The Selection and Sampling of Beet Seed. 

Preliminary Remarks. — It may be an excellent pre- 
cautionary measure, when intending to purchase beet 
seed from the dealer or grower, to learn just what the 
conditions of cultivation have been. The great trouble 
with most seed dealers is that they attempt too much 
and the customer suffers. Our advice is to give pref- 
erence to those producers of beet seed who cultivate 
nothing else and who make a specialty of selecting, 
etc.; furthermore, to those who realize the importance 
of not having patches of fodder beets in the vicinity. 
It is well not to be misled on this subject; a distance 
of over a mile between one farm and another may be 
a reasonable limit. Yet cases are known where the 
pollen has been carried by the wind or insects, which 
thus completed the fertilization of the plant, and there 
follows a hybrid, the existence of which the farmer and 
manufacturer soon realize. 

The very best seed must be planted under the best 
possible conditions, and the care that follows during 
plant development and sugar elaboration should con- 
tinue until the beets are delivered as raw material at 
the factory. The sugar is made on the field and the 
manufacturer is simply an extractor; hence, the rea- 
son why we have always recommended that when con- 
scientious farmers carry out instructions to the letter 
they should be furnished from the start with the very 
best procurable seed. The extra cost of same is a 
mere trifle as compared with the satisfactory money 
returns for all interested. 

The fire test for determining the vitality of beet 
seed appears to offer some advantages. The seeds are 

153 



154 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 



placed on a red-hot shovel; if they burn slowly, one 
may conclude that they are old and almost worthless. 
The operation should be repeated upon several sam- 
ples taken from the same sack; if the same results are 
obtained, the bag should be refused. On the 
other hand, if the seeds jump and produce a cracking 
sound or noise, they may be considered worthy of 
undergoing the germinating test. A series of exper- 
iments of this kind would soon show just what the pro- 
portion was of new and old seed in the sample. 

Influence of the Size of the Seed on the Quality of 
the Beet and Yield Per Acre. 

For many years past, there has been considerable 
discussion to determine whether or not the size of the 
seed has an influence on the resulting roots. Whether, 
in other words, large seeds yield beets of a higher 
saccharine percentage than small ones; whether the 
farmer has any advantage in using one size rather 
than another. For it must never be forgotten that 
seed which is known as beet seed, as previously 
explained, is, in reality, a cluster of several seeds, and 
the germs from some are extremely varied. Hence, 
the reason why there is such a variety of opinion upon 
this subject. The early experiments of Simon 
Le Grand were apparently very conclusive in favor of 
small seed- — 100 large seeds weighed 3.2 grams, 100 
small seeds weighed 0.425 grams. 

Sugar 
Per Cent. 



Large Seed. 



Small Seed. 



( August 11 

j " 20 

] " 31 

I September 16. 

f August 11 

J " 20 

1 " 31 

^.September 16. 




11.4 
11.8 
12.6 

12.5 



Other experiments of the same kind were made 
by Marek. During the early stages, the results 



SELECTION AND SAMPLING OF SEED. 



155 



appeared to be in favor of large seed, but toward the 
end of the season, certain changes occurred and no 
difference could be noticed. The area of experiment 
was small. 



Number of beets obtained. 

Specific gravity of juice 

Dry substances 

Polarization 

Purity coefficient 



Lar«re Seed. 


Small Seed- 


550 


571 


1.044 


1.050 


10.857 


12.285 


7.247 


8.732 


66.74 


71.16 



These results appear to be in direct contradiction 
to his early experiments. Walkhorr is decidedly in 
favor of large seed, as he declares that the resulting 
beets are more hardv. 

It seems to us that the strong argument in favor 
of large seed is, that the young plants, the outcome 
from them, can better resist the variations of the 
weather than the small. This is explained in various 
ways: Hollrung argues that small seeds mature 
early, owing to their greater facility to germinate. The 
average yield per acre is evidently greater with large 
than with small seed, owing, as we have just said, to 
there being a larger number of sprouts or germs per 
individual seed used. The pericarp is necessarily very 
much greater for large than for small seed. From 
this fact, Knauer concludes that the actual weight of 
seed proper is very much greater in small than in large 
seed. This outer covering for large seed represents 
75 per cent, of its total weight, while for the small seed 
only J2 per cent. If the large and small seed be put to 
a germinating test, the argument appears to be in favor 
of small seed. With five grams of large seeds may be 
obtained 283 sprouts, while with the same weight of 
small seeds 469 sprouts are obtained. 

Briem has also given this subject more than usual 
attention and his conclusions are worth recording. 
He admits that seed may be divided into three classes, 
large, medium and small. These all gave very great 



156 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 



variations in results; a synopsis of the same is 
as follows: 





Weight of Beets. 
Kilograms. 


Sugar Per Cent. 




Aver, f o 1 
Exper- 
iment. 


Maxi- , 
mum. 


Mini- 

mum. 

0.120 
0.150 
0.140 


Aver, for 
Exper- 
iment. 


Maxi- 
mum. 


Mini- 
mum. 


Large seed 

Medium * 4 

Small «• .... 


0.390 
0.39-2 
0.339 


0.8. r >0 
1.090 
0.810 


13.18 

13. 

12.70 


154 
15.5 

15.6 


10.3 
10.9 

10.2 



So it becomes evident that very little stress can be 
attached to the question of size of seed. ' It is far more 
important to give special attention to the condition of 
development of the seed proper than to whether they 
are large or small. Furthermore, it has been conclu- 
sively demonstrated that germs, even from the same 
seed, may give beets of a very different composition 
and yield. In the experiments in question, the weight 
varied from 55 to 835 grams, yet they were planted 
under exactly the same conditions. 

Briem declares that these variations are due to the 
physiological condition of the flower, the various por- 
tions of which have not been fertilized at the same 
time, or under exactly the same conditions. It is inter- 
esting to add that during these intervals of time, cli- 
matic influences have exerted their effects; further- 
more, the beet itself, during this period, undergoes 
great variations, which bring about changes in the 
flowering of what becomes an ultimate seed with 
several germs. The same variations have been 
noticed with numerous other plants in the whole 
botanical realm. 

Actual Weight of Beet Seed. 

Notwithstanding that this question has been under 
discussion for many years, there yet remains much to 
be done, on account of a great want of uniformity in 
the methods of investigation. The ballast, or outer 
covering (pericarp) of the seed varies so much with the 
size of the seed, and the difficulties in certain cases of 



SELECTION" AND SAMPLING OF SEED. 



157 



determining, if observations are being made, on what 
might be considered a single seed with about five 
germs, or whether it is composed of two seeds held 
together, which, collectively, have five germs. The 
Nobbe experiments would tend to show that the seed, 
or germ proper, represents 31 per cent, of the seed, 
while the ballast, or pericarp, is 68.8 per cent. 

The data furnished by other agronomists upon 
this subject differ somewhat from these figures. None 
are more reliable than those of Knauer, and he declares 
that, notwithstanding all the precautionary measures 
taken to determine the weight, the data obtained are 
certainly not mathematical. In the experiments 200 
seeds weighed 6.099 grams, of which the ballast 
weighed 4.487 grams, or 73.6 per cent., and the seed 
proper 26.4 per cent. There can be no doubt but that 
the weight of the germ increases with the weight of the 
seed. The experiments at Grobers were upon 50 
seeds, but to make these results more readily under- 
stood, we have based our calculations upon 100. 



Size of Seed. 



Large — 
Small.... 
Smaller.. 

Smallest. 



Weight of 
100 Seeds. 



4.G22 grams, 
3.702 " 
2!496 " 
1.378 " 



Number of 
Germs. 



346 
326 
260 
176 



One Germ 
Weighs. 



3.3 M. G. 
3.0 " 
2.7 «' 

2.7 " 



Knauer declares that it is a mistake to suppose 
for one instant that the large seed is simply a com- 
bination of two of the smaller seeds; a close examina- 
tion reveals that such is not the case. For in these 
large seeds may be found, side by side, much smaller, 
yet too large to fall through the holes of a 7 m. m. 
mesh. The same argument applies to the smallest seed 
of the table. 

Upon general principles, it may be admitted that 
one hectoliter of beet seed weighs 27 kilos (about 
twenty pounds per bushel). There is a great variation 
in the weight of seeds, considerd as a whole. Dr. Bret- 
feld has declared that there may be 14 to 103 seeds per 



158 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

gram, which means that their weight may vary from 
0.0097 grams to 0.0714 grams. It is to be noted that 
such variations in weight do not exist with any seed 
in the whole field of botany. Pagnoul says that the 
average number of seeds per two grams is 105, which 
means that the average weight of individual seeds is 
about 0.018 grams. One bushel of beet seed weighs 
only sixteen to twenty-one pounds. Without doubt, 
the varieties of beets and the methods of cultivation 
have certain influences on the size of the beet seed. 
The period of duration of flowering must also not 
be forgotten. 

Another fact not to be overlooked is, that the size 
of the seed depends upon the number of germs it con- 
tains; the average may be considered as five. These 
vary, being one, two, three, and even ten. Briem 
declares that he has in his collection a single seed 
which weighs 0.249 grams. While Pagnoul admits 
that 105 seeds weigh two grams, Bretfeld, an equally 
high authority allows only 90. However, the differ- 
ence is very slight between these two authorities, as 
by the latter it is admitted that 100 seeds weigh 2.22 
grams. With small seeds during certain years it 
requires 103 to weigh one gram, while, on the other 
hand, 24, or even 22, of the largest may also weigh 
one gram. Hence, the reason why, some years ago, 
there was a thorough understanding that large seed 
should be those in which forty-five were equivalent in 
weight to one gram; small seed those where this num- 
ber is greater. This leads to entirely different results, 
from the purchaser's standpoint, to those which would 
be obtained by the Knauer size of seven m. m. to 
five m. m. method mentioned in previous pages. This 
authority declares that the weight of beet seed is 
largely influenced by its condition, or degree of its 
maturity. One liter of Imperial Knauer (eleven per 
cent, moisture) weighs 185.34 grams (seven ounces 
per quart). 



SELECTION AND SAMPLING OF SEED. 159 

Numerous authorities have taken upon them- 
selves to determine the number of sprouts given by 
one gram. Sempolowski declares that the following 
is about an average, and may be an excellent basis 
of classification: 

Those seeds which give 81 to 112 sprouts, per gram Excellent. 

44 " 44 4< 55 to 80 '• " Good. 

44 " " " 40 to 54 " " Average 

44 44 * 4 " less than 40 should be considered. . .Bad. 

This differs from Knauer's early classification, 
where superior seed w r ere considered to be those where 
there were only sixty sprouts per gram, and an average 
quality less than fifty. The germinating power is not 
the only fact which should be considered. 

Selection of Seed. 

The farmer, when purchasing seed in general, has 
some basis to work upon which is sufficiently accurate 
for general practical purposes. On the other hand, 
with beet seed he is at a great disadvantage. That the 
color, the impurities, odor, etc., are characteristics 
upon which certain reliance may be placed, no one for 
an instant doubts, but these are not sufficient to decide 
in advance the money value of the product being 
examined; hence, the subject is of more than ordinary 
interest. The seed formation and its maturity is a 
most variable factor, even on the same stalk to which 
the matured seed adheres more or less firmly. Some 
seeds fall as soon as the stalk is touched, while others 
adhere with moderate or excessive firmness, and can 
be separated only by the use of a special instrument, 
the moderately adhering type representing three- 
fourths of the total seed obtained. M. Legras has 
cultivated beets from the latter and does not hesitate 
to assert that they yield roots 0.60 per cent, richer in 
sugar than either the loose or tenacious kind; this may 
be a starting point for still further selection and is cer- 
tainly well worth looking into. 



160 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

By Chemical Analyses. 

Laskowsky, a Russian, at Moscow, has tried to 
demonstrate that the saccharine quality of beets is in 
direct ratio to the fatty substances of the seed — that 
large seed contain more fatty substances than small. 
The mass of testimony of Briem, Strohmer, etc., does 
not agree with that assertion, and shows that there is 
no relation between the two. Furthermore, the Man- 
gold seed is very rich in fatty substance. Zaikiewitsch, 
another Russian savant, determines the fatty substance, 
phosphoric acid* and albumen in the seed. The phos- 
phoric acid was estimated in the entire seed, and the 
fatty substance and albumen in the seed proper, with- 
out outer covering. These experiments were upon a 
great variety of French, German and Russian seed; 
in these analyses the percentage of albumen varied 
from fourteen to twenty per cent; fatty substances, 
eleven to fifteen per cent; phosphoric acid, 0.4 to 0.9 
per cent, in beets testing an average of 15.5 per cent, 
sugar. From such results it was concluded that no 
constant relation exists between the composition of 
the seed and the sugar percentage of beets. It is 
interesting, however, to note that seeds from France 
and Germany contains less albuminoids and fatty sub- 
stances than do Russian seeds; on the other hand, the 
latter are very much poorer in phosphorus. 

Other interesting discussions have been con- 
tinued for a period of years to decide if the composi- 
tion of the seed in general has not an influence on the 
resulting roots. For if such should be the case, an 
analysis of seed would settle a very important ques- 



* As regards the phosphoric acid, M. Pagnoul, in France, came also to 
the conclusion that there is not the slightest connection between it 
and the sugar per cent, of the resulting root. 



SELECTION AND SAMPLING OF SEED. 



lf,l 



•tion. The experiments of Pellet with large and small 
seeds of several varieties were as follows: 



Variety of Seed. 


O 

%v 
.3- U 
a, T Ji 


%£$ 

— r. 

o 

10.9 
11.0 

11.2 

12.2 

12.5 
11.4 


Nitrogen Per 

Cent. Normal 

Substance. 


Ash Per Cent, 
Normal Sub- 
stance. 


Sugar Per 

Cent, in 

Beet. 


Vilmovin i large 


4.13 gr 
0.54 " 

0.77 " 

4.745 " 

4.647 " 
0.560 " 


2.66 
3.07 

2.8 

2.46 

2.38 
2.55 


5.4 
5.3 

8.2 

6.5 

7.0 
9.0 


15 


| small 
German Varieties, ) 

Rose neck, small [ 

seed, average. . . ; 
Gray neck, large ^ 
seed, average... ! 
Green neck, large |" ' 
seed, average... J 

Forage ( Large seed 

Varieties ( Small seed 




10 
4 to 6 



The richer the beet, the greater the per cent, of nitric elements 
and rlie smaller the per cent, of ash. 

In a same variety of seed, the small seed contained more nitrogen 
than the large. 

So, apparently, a classification, according to qual- 
ity, could be made on the basis of nitrogen or ash esti~ 
mation. It is very doubtful, however, if this method 
can be considered thoroughly reliable. Many years 
ago, Dubrunfaut declared that from his observation 
superior beet seed gives less ash than the inferior 
varieties. He maintained that sugar-beet seeds had 
about four to six per cent, ash,* while in forage beets 
this ash percentage varied from six to 14 per cent; 
furthermore, sugar-beet seed appears to contain more 
phosphoric acid. 

* Chemical composition of beet-seed ashes, Champion Pellet: 



Potash , 

Soda 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Sulphuric acid.. 

Chlorine 

Phosphoric acid 

Silica 

Oxide of iron. .. 
Magnesia , 



Ordinary Seed. 



1. 

21.1 
8.9 

25.4 

13.5 
4.0 
4.7 
8.4 

13.4 
1.2 
0.7 

101.3 



2. 

16.4 

10.4 

20.2 

11.5 

2.8 

4.1 

9.3 

26.4 



101.1 



Vilmorin 

Improved. 

Seed. 

24.2 
12.8 
17.2 
10.1 

4.3 

4.1 
17.4 

ii!* 



101.1 



11 



162 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

During our visits to many beet fields in Germany, 
some experts declared themselves in favor of the selec- 
tion of seed by density, using for the purpose special 
saline baths; those sinking would give the best yield 
as to quality and tonnage. It remains to be proven if 
this method can be considered reliable, for certain 
seeds, large or small, under certain conditions of poros- 
ity of their outer covering, would absorb more or less 
water. If the solution changes color to any great 
extent during the few minutes which the test lasts, 
that would be a certain indication that the seed in 
question is old. 

Color and Odor. 

The color of the seed is not a question upon which 
much reliance can be placed, as the condition of the 
weather at the time of harvesting has a most important 
influence, and examples may be cited where the seed 
was very dark in color yet proved of a satisfactory qual- 
ity. This is explained by the fact that in the seed one 
of the germs or sprouts may be dead and influence the 
color of the pericarp. However, there is a certain 
characteristic shading which is an evidence of quality, 
determined, however, through considerable experience. 
The small leaves, so to speak, adhering to the hard 
portion of the outer covering of the seed are, within a 
reasonable limit, indications of quality. While at first 
moisture has very little effect on the germs proper, 
after a time the amount absorbed brings about certain 
fermentations, which have a very great influence on 
the germinating power and the ultimate color. 

The atmospheric influence is so great at the period 
of harvesting and maturity, that the color of the seed 
varies between great limits, from very light to nearly 
black. It is generally admitted that a slight green or 
yellow color is a favorable indication of quality. In 
most of the European experiment stations, very little 



SELECTION AND SAMPLING OF SEED. 163 

importance is attached to color. On the other hand, 
the odor of seed is a reliable basis and certain depend- 
ence may be placed on it; it should be very much like 
hay. Again, when the smell is rather mouldy, it would 
indicate that the seed had been kept in a damp place or 
had not been properly handled after harvesting; the 
odor from the decomposition of the organic portion of 
the plant is very offensive. Old seeds have a charac- 
teristic smell, which permit one, with a little experience, 
to recognize them at once. Those who make a prac- 
tice of mixing these seed with their new crop take the 
precaution of disguising the smell by the use of anise- 
seed oil, or a weak solution of permanganate of potash. 

Impurities. 

Five to ten grams of the seed are carefully 
weighed and then spread upon a sheet of paper. 
Each seed is pushed to one side and counted. 
The weight of the seed used, N grams, and the weight 
of the clean seed, n grams, are substituted in the fol- 
lowing formula in calculating the percentage of 
impurities, I:I==(N — n -j- N) ioo. This estimation 
of impurities at first seems very simple, but in reality 
it offers many difficulties, as the results obtained fre- 
quently do not agree. The shaking of the bottle con- 
taining the sample demands certain precautions; if 
always in one direction, the deposit will be found in 
one spot, while if shaken with cork down, to one side, 
etc., the impurities are evenly spread through the entire 
mass of seed. An important question is, Whether the 
leaves and adhering stems should be separated and 
counted as impurities or left on and not considered? 
Many discussions occur relating to this custom, and in 
one case the impurities may be found to be four per 
cent, and in the other only two per cent. However, 
when that question is settled, it is well to repeat the 
operation of impurity estimation at least three times 
and to take an average. 

A given weight of the seed is well shaken in a 



164 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

sieve, allowing the dust, also mineral and organic par- 
ticles, to pass through. What remains in the sieve is 
placed upon white paper or porcelain, and with a small 
brush those seeds taken as samples are pushed to one 
side. The impurities remaining are added to those 
passing through the sieve and this total is weighed; 
the percentage of impurity to total seed is then calcu- 
lated. The stems, empty seed, small stones, etc., of 
which the impurities consist, are seldom more than 
3 per cent, of the whole, it being sometimes only 0.7 
per cent., while again in efforts at fraud it has been 30 
per cent. 

It is interesting to note that the question of impu- 
rities of seed is no longer the subject of discussion it 
once was — special and well-constructed ventilators 
removing all the dust and light particles that are always 
adhering to beet seed after having been dried. The 
seed dealers who attempt fraudulent methods very 
seldom resort to the mixing of seed with the impurities 
which have been previously removed. 

Moisture. 

All seeds have a moisture of their own, and 
there never need be the slightest dread of the 
seller adding water, as fermentation would follow. The 
natural moisture varies, according to year, from 12 to 
15 per cent.; if more than 15 per cent., the seed gets 
mouldy and loses its germinating power. The seed 
grower should always take the precaution not to keep 
his seed fresh from the field in piles, more especially 
so if harvested in rainy weather; on the contrary, it 
should be spread out in a thin* layer upon the floor of a 
well-ventilated building. 

As before explained in these pages, the absorbing 
power of large seed being greater than that for small 
seed, it is evident that under the best of circumstances 
tnere is a higher percentage of moisture in large than 
in small seed. It must never be forgotten that the 



SELECTION AND SAMPLING OF SEED. 

II 



165 



moisture percentage is undergoing constant variations 
with the hygrometric conditions of the ambient atmos- 
phere.* The moisture of a sample of seed is deter- 
mined by weighing a given quantity before and after 
drying at a temperature of 105 degrees C. (221 degrees 
F.) during a period of 465 hours. If five grams are 
heated in a platinum capsule, the loss of weight multi- 
plied by twenty gives the weight of water contained in 
a hundred grams of seed. This amount it is impor- 
tant to know, as if in excess of 15 or 18 per cent, it 
indicates a bad conservation, which is a very objection- 
able feature. 

An interesting fact which has recently been brought 
to light is, that there seems to be some practical relation 
between the moisture of the seed and its power of ger- 
mination. These experiments were mainly undertaken 
by Dr. Bretfeld. It is concluded by him that the ger- 
minating power increases with a decrease in percent- 
age of moisture. However, the following data show 
that the variations are very slight and no great impor- 
tance need be attached to them. The experiments 
extended over a period of four years; with 13 per cent 
moisture there were 159 per cent, of germs (each seed 
containing several); with 12.5 per cent., 194 per cent, 
of germs; 13.6 per cent., 133 per cent, of germs; 13 per 
cent., 153 per cent, of germs. The great variations in 
moisture of seed depend upon their origin; the age, 
etc., is made evident by the following series: 







Per Cen 


t. Moisture. 






Large 


Seed. 


Medium. 


Small 


Seed. 


Large. 
Per Cent. 


Small. 
Per Cent. 

20.5 
18.2 
29.0 
17.3 


Large. 
Per Cent. 

10.3 
9.5 
5.1 
9.8 


Small. 
Per Cent. 


Large. 
Per Cent. 


Small. 
Per Cent. 


16.8 
18.3 
28.3 
17.7 


9.2 
8.2 
3.3 

£.9 


13.6 

13.7 
14.6 
1 8.5 


12.4 
11.3 
12.6 
13.1 



A verage 13. 



12.3 



From which we conclude, with some degree of cer- 



* See our remarks on moisture under heading 
tions Respecting Germination." 



General Considera- 



166 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

tainty that small seeds, whatever be their classification, 
contain less moisture than do the large. Hence, if 
there actually exists some relation between moisture 
and the sprouting power, small seed should sprout 
more readily than large seed. We think that the prac- 
tical tests in germination will show that this is 
not true. 

Sampling for Germination. 

It is most difficult to get what may be called an 
average sample of beet seed, and those who have not 
looked into the question would be surprised to learn 
of the extreme care necessary, and the difficulties to be 
contended with. It must not be forgotten, as pre- 
viously mentioned, that what is generally termed beet 
seed is in reality not a seed, but an aggregation of 
seeds held under the same shell or husk. An expla- 
nation from a botanical standpoint is rather compli- 
cated, but one fact is certain, that there seems to be 
very little relation between the sprouts and the total 
number of germs a seed may contain. It is interest- 
ing to note what agronomists of the European world 
have done, Messrs. Nobbe, Maercker, Weinzierl and 
Pagnoul, for Germany, Austria and France. While 
complete uniformity does not exist in the observations 
by the many methods in existence, they are interesting 
and worthy of a trial. It would be impossible, even in 
a special volume, to pass in review all the various 
methods of sampling, including laboratory germina- 
tion, for the complete data would not be procurable. 

Upon general principles, this sampling should be 
done in the presence of the purchaser and dealer, or 
their agent. When purchasing on a large scale, it is 
important to open several bags, noting whether the 
appearance of the centre is about the same as the outer 
border. In France, it is recommended that samples 
be taken from each of five bags when the sale is limited 



SELECTION AND SAMPLING OF SEED. 167 

to ten bags, from ten when twenty bags, and twenty 
samples when there are fifty bags, etc., for over 500 
bags, one in every five. The seeds thus obtained are 
placed in a flask, well corked, and remain there until 
needed for analysis in a germinator. If several sam- 
ples are to be taken from the large sample, the seeds 
are spread out on a table and divided into as many 
parts as there are tests to be made. 

The unique sampling is more accurate, for the 
more the seeds are manipulated, the greater will be 
their loss of impurities. The germinating power of 
the seed varies from year to year; owing to existing 
frauds, it is most difficult to get an average sample. 
There is great need of some uniformity of method of 
purchasing and testing seed. However, when making 
the first sampling from the sacks of seed, an average 
should be obtained from the start; it would be a mis- 
take to select only from the upper surface, as the seed 
there is the lightest, but samples should be taken from 
the bottom, middle and top, so that the total seed 
obtained should weigh at least 10^ ounces, or 300 
grams. The ultimate selection may be made from this 
preliminary sample. 

By the Nobbe method 300 grams are thoroughly 
mixed and then emptied into a funnel-shaped hopper, 
the bottom opening of which is sufficiently small to 
permit very few seeds to pass through at a time. At 
regular intervals, timed by a watch, samples of seed are 
taken, which are received in a special spoon. After a 
given number of spoonfuls are obtained, they are 
spread over a black surface, from various parts of 
which are taken twenty or thirty seeds, this operation 
being repeated about twenty times, until 600 seeds are 
obtained, which are divided into three lots of 200 each, 
and are respectively used for the determinations of 
moisture, impurities and germination. 

Another method for sampling differs from the 



1G8 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 



foregoing in many respects after the first selection is 
made from the sacks. The seed is emptied into special 
pasteboard boxes covered with black paper. These 
boxes are 13^ inches in length, about 10 inches in 
width, and 1^ inches in height. The seed in these 
boxes must be very evenly spread over the bottom, so 
that only one layer is obtained. Samples are taken 
with spoons, so as to obtain a sufficient quantity for 
subsequent examination. The Maercker method is 
among the most accurate and interesting (Fig. 50). 




yer/-/co/ Sect/ en 





Top K/eyr 

Fig. 50. Maercker sampler. Fig. 51. 

The samples from sacks are emptied into a special dish 
with a cross-like opening at the bottom; this dish 
fitting exactly into a second one. The seed should be 
evenly spread out with the hand, exerting no pressure. 
The dish is then withdrawn behind, and there remains 
in the under receptacle a lot of seed, arranged geomet- 
rically, corresponding to the opening in the bottom of 
the dish removed; from it are taken the final samples 
for germination, etc. 



SELECTION AND SAMPLING OF SEED. 



169 



In the Bretfeld method of obtaining a sample, the 
arrangement is very like that we have just described, 
and is shown herewith (Fig. 51). It consists of a sheet- 
iron disk, S, which fits inside an earthen receptacle, S'. 
The seed is placed in S and falls through the opening, 
0.* When 5 is withdrawn there remains the geomet- 




Fig. 52. Divider paper. 

rical figure shown herewith. The operation should be 
again repeated with a smaller appliance of same kind. 
About 200 seeds are selected; these are placed on a 
sheet of black paper, divided into squares or rec- 
tangles; as each of these is divided in two, each half 
will contain 100 seeds. 



♦Some experts recommend that correspond to 5 grams in weight 
of seed. The Austrian method can hardly be considered as exact as 
the foregoing. It consists in spreading the sack sample upon a black 
circle, from which are taken, with the horn spoon, segments of the 
circle which represent the final samples. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
Germination. 

Preliminary Remarks. — Seeds before being planted 
are kept in some dry place for periods of time which are 
very variable; until when placed in a suitable environ- 
ment, they remain in a semi-dormant condition. Their 
vitality manifests itself when certain conditions are ful- 
filled; none are more impoitant than heat, moisture, 
air and light. The germinating power of beet seeds 
depends upon their age, and some authorities claim 
that even after ten years'* keeping, a certain number 
will appear above ground; however, the resulting roots 
would never reach their normal development. As 
seeds retain, in the form of albumen, the requisite plant 
food for the first few days after sprouting, it is self- 
evident the older the seed, the greater will be the alter- 
ations in the composition of this stored-up food, and 
with age the vitality of the plantlet during its first 
struggle to gain the surface becomes less. 

Heat. 

We shall not for the present consider the heat 
of the soil as affecting germination, but heat as 
having its influence upon the seed, as is possible to 
determine by laboratory research. As these investiga- 
tions are limited, it is important to place special stress 
upon those made by Knauer. Eleven samples of ioo 
seeds were placed in a copper receptacle heated by hot 
air; the temperatures varied from 40 degrees C. to 120 
degrees C. The seeds were subsequently cooled, then 

* One cannot help contrasting the vitality of beet seed with certain 
varieties of Egyptian, which were several thousand years oid. 

170 



GERMINATION. 171 

placed on moist sand for determining their germinating 
power. The experiments were again repeated with 
eleven other samples, to determine the influence of time 
upon the heating. The conclusions were, that the 
germinating power of beet seed submitted for three 
hours to a temperature of 50 to 60 degrees C. was con- 
siderably increased; the same seeds, at a temperature 
of 115 to 120 degrees C. lost their power to germinate, 
and this loss of vitality increased with increase of tem- 
perature. A moist heat produces also a beneficiat 
effect, for seed, exposed to moist, hot air for six hours, 
from 40 to 50 degrees C, had its germinating power 
considerably increased. However, changes occur at 
70 degrees C, and with an increase of temperature the 
vitality is completely destroyed. Consequently, it is 
very important to keep in mind that there are certain 
limits which should not be surpassed. 

Hot water is more destructive to the germinating 
power of beet seed than is hot, dry or moist air. Seed 
in hot water at a temperature of 60 degrees C. will no 
longer germinate, and even at 55 degrees C. only three 
or four out of 100 will give signs of life;-as this limit is 
not reached in the soil, it need not be dreaded. 

Moisture. 

The moisture of beet seed is an extremely vari- 
able question, and while certain limits are fixed 
when seeds are purchased in the market, the idea 
is mainly to prevent fraud when the sale is by 
weight, as it always should be. Furthermore, moist- 
ened seeds lose their keeping powers; consequently, if 
that system of fraud were allowed, the purchaser would 
be the loser. Nobbe allows an average of 13.3 per 
cent, moisture; Maercker admits that 20.5 per cent, is 
not uncommon, while, at the other extreme, 4.4 per 
cent, is considered an average, which limit is sim- 
ply absurd. 



172 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

Knaner made a special study of the question. The 
experiments were upon seed containing from n.8 to 

12.6 per cent, moisture, when brought to the labor- 
atory after harvesting. To show that the moisture of 
the room in which seeds are kept has an influence, the 
above seed, when kept on the ground floor, soon had 

16.7 per cent, moisture, while after remaining for three 
days in a room heated to 22 ° C. (71. 6° F.) their mois- 
ture was only 10.1 per cent. When one considers that 
the daily variations of the ambient air is very consider- 
able, it becomes manifest that certain allowances must 
be made for the same. Experiments were made upon 
seeds of four different sizes. * With a relative moisture 
of the air, which varied from 61 per cent, to 94 per 
.cent., the total increase of moisture for the four seeds 
was 0.53 per cent., 0.40 per cent., 0.28 per cent, and 
0.36 per cent. 

These observations are of special moment when it 
is desired to make a commercial examination of beet 
seed. If the sample is sent by mail it is very impor- 
tant that it should be contained in a hermetically sealed 
box. The amount of water that the seed absorbs when 
in water depends upon the temperature and time of 
emersion. Our own experiments showed that at 40 
degrees F. the absorption was 71 per cent., while at 
68 degrees F. it ran to no per cent, j Knauer's exper- 
iments for 144 hours showed that the absorption for 
the four sizes of seed mentioned in foregoing was 136 
per cent., 114 per cent., 149 per cent, and 172 per cent. 
It is concluded that seeds of smaller size take up 
water more rapidly, proportionally, than large seeds; 
the absorption is the greatest during the first 24 hours 
and during the first six hours of the test. 



*In the Knaner seed the classification is as follows : Those remain- 
ing in the sieve with 7. m. m. mesh, will weigh, for 100 seeds, 4.597 
grams, or 109 seeds for 5 grams ; those remaining in sieve with 6. m. m. 
mesh correspond to 143 seeds per 5 grams. The third size are those 
which are retained by 5 m. m. mesh and give 194 seeds for 5grams, and 
the fourth, 313 seeds per 5 grams. 

tSee Ware, ''The Sugar Beet." 



GERMINATION. 173 

If seeds are freed of their pericarp, the water 
absorption no longer remains the same, for under such 
circumstances the conditions are much changed, and 
the moisture taken out is very much less, which fact in 
itself shows the very important role of the outer cover- 
ing. The differences are still more striking when seeds 
in their natural condition are compared with those 
where the pericarp has been partly removed by simple 
friction between fingers, and finally with those seeds 
from which the pericarp has been entirely removed. 
These seeds, after remaining for three days submitted 
to watery vapor, had increased in weight 23.6 per cent., 
15.7 per cent, and 11 per cent, respectively. The time 
needed for seed to absorb water is very much greater 
with the pericarp than without it; in the latter case, the 
total absorption is completed in seven hours, while in 
the former, at least twenty-four hours are required, 
from which fact the very important function of the 
outer covering of the seed is manifest, as the embryo 
can draw from it its moisture during its early stages 
of development. 

Light. 

The principal action of light is after the 
seed leaves have appeared above ground; this will be 
discussed under another heading; but as regards the 
direct action of light, it is not as important as one 
might suppose. True, with some plants the germina- 
tion of seed has a certain dependence upon light, but 
experiments with beet seed show beyond cavil that the 
differences between the effects of germination in the 
dark or by a strong light are so slight that they need 
scarcelv be considered. Knauer's experiments upon 
100 seeds in light, after 14 days, gave 268 sprouts, and 
in complete darkness, 262. The same may be said of 
various colored lights. The germinating power of 
beet seed varies very much from year to year. Dr. 



174 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

Bretfeld, in Germany, has compiled some important 
statistics during 1880-83, which are as follows: 1880, 
18 per cent, of the seed did not germinate; in 1881, 16 
per cent.; in 1882, 29 per cent.; in 1883, 21 per cent. 

Just the time at which seeds have the most of their 
germs is by no means a settled question. In Kruger's 
experiments, he obtained the following: 



Number of 
Seed in Ger- 


Number of Sprouts Per Diem. 


minator. 


3d 

31 

5 


4th 

101 

87 


5th 

81 
66 


6th 

28 
45 


7th 

5 

26 


8th 

4 

7 


9th 
4 
9 


10th 


11th 

11 
4 


12th 

8 
1 


13th 

7 



14th 


200 large 

v,00 small 


12 
3 


4 
5 



Prof. Nobbe later took up the question and started 
from the number of sprouts after the sixth day, per 100 
seeds. The results offer no special interest other than 
showing what is already known: That the number of 
germs varies with the size of seed, for, as Knauer points 
out, while with 100 large seeds weighing about 4.67 
grams, there were 143 sprouts after six days, and 122 
after 14 days, or a total of 265; with 100 small seeds 
weighing 1.44 grams, there were 127 sprouts in six 
days and 134 after 14 days. 

Germinators. 

Upon general principles, it may be said that 
the best results are obtained in germinators 
where the temperature is kept at about 25 degrees C. 
This is very difficult to regulate, under which circum- 
stances it is evident that the question of determining 
the germinating 'power of beet seed is more laboratory 
than farm work. However, when the farmer has a 
well arranged greenhouse, the regulated conditions 
may be obtained. If only a flower pot, and this be 
placed in a closet with a few lights constantly burning, 
the desired temperature will soon be reached, provid- 
ing, however, that there be sufficient ventilation. 

There is a great variety of germinators, only 
at few of which need here be described. An 



GERMINATION. 175 

important fact to keep constantly in mind is, that 
when comparative germinating tests are made upon 
seed of the same origin, the difference between the 
results obtained should never be greater than 15 per 
cent, after six days, nor more than 10 per cent, after 
two weeks. The accuracy of these observations does 
not depend alone' upon the selection of the final average 
sample, but also upon the germinator used; the layers 
of seed, their respective positions, etc., are all factors 
not to be overlooked. Long practical experience is 
necessary before satisfactory results can be obtained, 
and, if in the hands of a novice, the purchaser and 
seller may both be at a disadvantage. For sprouting, 
various mediums are used, of which may be mentioned : 
Earth, peat, sawdust, paper, and various kinds of sand. 
For an earth test it is desirable that the earth be of a 
very light, sandy texture, one that will not cake on the 
surface by repeated watering. 

The advantage of sand is, that it has always about 
the same composition. Respecting this material, it 
has been noticed that in comparative germination tests 
with sand, the number of germs obtained is 15 per cent, 
higher than in other mediums; hence, the importance 
of the kind of germinating medium that is used. It is 
desirable to use fresh sand for each test, or at least to 
submit it to excessive heat in order to destroy all 
germs.* The most simple of all germinators consists 
of a receptacle containing sand saturated with water; 
as the surface is, to a certain extent, hard, the seeds 
remain in place when once in position. They should, 
however, be sunk sufficiently in the medium to disap- 
pear from sight. 



* There is a great difference of opinion as to whether seed retains 
its moisture during two weeks. Bretfeld says it does, while Knauer 
shows that there is a loss of 2 per ceiit. In all sand germinators there 
is always a difficulty in keeping the sand at a standard condition of 
moisture, say 25 per cent. Knauer recommends that 200 grams — 140 
c. m. sand, he placed in the apparatus ; after shakiner, a perfectly hori- 
zontal level is obtained; 52c. m, water are then added. 



176 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

It is desirable to sprinkle a little dry sand on the 
surface before plaring the seed in position. In this 
case, about ioo average seeds are used; the receptacle 
is covered by a sheet of glass and left for about two 
weeks. So as to obviate the ordeal of countings special 
hand-roller has been constructed by Breuer. By sim- 
ply using it as one would a blotter of the same shape, 
ioo depressions are made in the sand, in 10 rows 
and 10 in each row. The best practice, however, 
demands that the seed sprouted be constantly removed 
and the number of days noted; a match stick or piece 
of wood is placed where the seeds were taken. After 
the end of the germination period, it is desirable to 
examine with a magnifying glass 'the seeds which do 
not give signs of life, to ascertain to a certainty if this 




Fig. 53. Breuer marker. 

may be attributed to fraud or accident. Some experts 
recommend that after counting the sprouts of each 
seed removed, that they be again* placed in a second 
germinator for another period of eight days; other 
sprouts will then appear. 

In the earth test, square boxes, about 20 c. m. (8 
inches) inside measurement, and 10 c. m. (4 inches) 
in depth, are used; these are filled with earth nearly to 
the top. On the surface are arranged, parallel to each 
other, strips of tin 1 c. m. (0.39 inches) in width, the 
distance between each being 1 c. m. Perpendicular 
to these are other strips of tin arranged in exactly the 
same manner, their points of intersection being sol- 
dered so that they retain their respective positions. In 
the openings left, 1 square c. m., the seeds are placed 



GERMINATION. 177 

and covered with i c. m. of earth, so that the sprout- 
ing is done in a medium of i c. c. m. The surface is 
then sprayed with water. The natural advantage of this 
arrangement is, that the counting of seed offers no dif- 
ficulty. During the interval of 14 days the seed should 
be watered three times with an atomizer, it being 
very important that the soil be not too moist during 
the test. 

The use of a porous terra-cotta plaque, with several 
parallel openings in the bottom to keep the seed in 
position, may, for some practical purposes, give satis- 
factory results; the moisture requisite is absorbed by 
the terra-cotta from the water in which this plaque is 
placed. Many of the existing germinators are earthen- 
ware; respecting their use, it is considered important 
not to use them for a second time, as organic sub- 
stances collect in the pores of the material, which soon 
become centres of infection; as a result, the seed, 
instead of germinating, will simply rot. While by 
heating the terra-cotta plaque it is possible to destroy 
all germs, the porosity o.f the receptacle would soon 
disappear and it would become worthless for the 
purpose intended. 

The Marek germinator consists simply of earthen 
plates about eight inches in 'diameter, and one to two 
inches in depth; they are filled with fine sand combined 
with 5 per cent, of muddy substance. The surface is 
moistened, and compressed to one-third of an inch with 
a special instrument. The surface is divided into 
regular intervals in two directions, and at the point of 
intersection the seeds are placed, their number being 
counted, and then covered with sand falling from a 
sieve. All sand above the outer border of the plates 
is removed by running a ruler over its surface; the 
depth of covering above seed is about one-third of an 
inch. Great care should be taken to keep moisture 
within reasonable bounds. The seeds and sprouts 

12 



178 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 



are counted as usual after the prescribed interval 
of seven davs. 

In France, it is proposed to use porous earthen 
plates; rich vegetable soil is used as a germinating 
medium. It appears that earth, such as collects in the 
trunks of old trees, offers special advantages. The 
spacing between seed is determined by the use of a wire 
cloth with i c. m. (one-third of an inch) mesh; a seed 
is placed in the centre. The large seeds are kept sep- 
arate from the small; these are then covered with 2 
to 4 m. m. ' earth. These dishes are kept in a 
warm place in the laboratory, and the earth is moist- 
ened with rain, or distilled water, at regular intervals. 




FIG. 54. Arrangement of seed. 6 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 1 = 25 

It is recommended not to use too much water, so as to 
avoid mildew. 

The Maercker method is also interesting. Ordi- 
nary porcelain plates are used; these are rilled with cal- 
cined sandy quartz, and about 40 per cent, water is 
necessary for the preparation of the layer, or 100 c. c. 
for 500 c. c. of sand. The circular surface is divided 
into four equal sectors, to facilitate the counting. In 
each sector two rows of six seeds are arranged, and 
alongside of them other rows containing five, four, 
three and one seed respectively, or a total of twenty- 
five seeds for a sector, meaning 100 seeds per plate 

(Fig. 54). ' 



GERMINATION. 179 

The seed must always undergo six hours' pre- 
liminary soaking. The plates are covered with a wire 
gauze, then with a sheet of glass, which prevents evap- 
oration, the whole being subsequently covered with an 
inverted plate. No water is added during the test. It 
is claimed that this is one of the simplest and best ger- 
minators, and gives far more reliable results than the 
blotting-paper method and has not the inconvenience 
of the latter, in removing the seed with the fingers; 
furthermore, the moisture remains nearly constant dur- 
ing the week, which it does not by the paper method. 

By the paper method the seeds to be germinated 
are soaked for six hours in distilled water, then carefully 
arranged on a sheet of blotting-paper, with the borders 
turned up. This should be moistened and covered with 
a double sheet of the same paper, which is also damp- 
ened. The seeds with their paper environment are 
placed in a special receptacle and covered by a sheet of 
glass to prevent evaporation. After the seventh day 
the sprouts are counted, and all seeds showing signs of 
life are removed. Those not germinated are placed for 
a second time between moistened paper, and after 
another interval of seven days they also are counted; 
the sprouts of the first and second weeks give the total 
for ioo or 200 seeds under examination. Notwithstand- 
ing the unpopularity of this method in Germany, 
in France it has many advocates; so much so, 
that at the Paris Agronomic Institute it was 
customary to make tests upon 700 seeds at a time. 
These were in seven different germinators containing 
100 seeds each. The seeds were moistened on filter- 
paper during twelve hours, then placed in ovens for 
eighteen hours a day at 20 degrees C. and six hours at 
28 degrees C. The average was taken for the whole 
experiment. 

Another very simple germinator (Fig. 55) consists 
of a porcelain receiver, in which is placed a porous 



180 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 



receptacle, R, to hold seed to be tested. The requisite 
humidity is supplied by filling W with water. The 
carbonic acid formed during germination, which, if 
permitted to remain, would retard the action sought 
after, is absorbed by caustic potassa placed in cups, P. 
The cover, C, does not prevent fresh air from entering 
to supply the requisite oxygen for the development of 
the germ. The temperature of the seed is determined 
by a thermometer, T, placed in the centre of the cover, 
and kept in a vertical position by a cork. After a 
few days have elapsed, the germination is complete. 

The Pagnoul germinator consists of a tin box, 
twenty-six inches long, eight inches high and 5-J inches 
wide, covered with another box of the same kind, 
twenty-seven inches long, eight inches wide and ij 




fig 55. 
inches high. The bottom of the latter has five open- 
ings three-fourths of an inch in diameter, upon which 
are soldered tin tubes six inches in length. In these 
tubes are placed moistened cotton cords, which hang 
down into the water of the box beneath. In the upper 
box, over the end of the cotton wicks, about three- 
fourths of an inch of sand is placed. It is evident that 
the sand remains constantly moist, owing to the cap- 
illary attraction of the cotton. 

A thermometer is placed in the centre tube; the 
other four are covered by tin frames six inches long, 
5-J inches wide and i| inches high. Under each of 
these the seed to be tested are placed. The frames last 
mentioned may be covered with a sheet of glass, per- 
mitting the progress of the germination to be watched. 



GERMINATION. 181 

The advantage of this arrangement is economy of con- 
struction, and the sand remaining constantly moist, 
the seeds do not require watering. The only 
precaution necessary is, that the water in the lower tin 
compartment never be allowed to entirely evaporate. 
If the ambient temperature is lower than 50 degrees F., 
a lamp or candle would keep the water at the desired 
temperature. When the seeds to be tested are planted, 
the date, etc., are recorded. After four days the num- 
ber of seed having germinated is counted. The 
operation lasts about twelve days, and all seeds not 
having then given signs of life are considered worth- 
less. Insects soon attack beet seed if germination is 
too slow. 

The Michel germinator consists of a square zinc 
box about eight inches long and 1^ inches high. In 
this box is placed a plaster slab resting on four short 
feet; on its upper portion are sixteen parallel ridges, in 
which are placed the seed to be tested. The cover, 
also of plaster, with a central hole, is used to protect 
the slab against light and too rapid evaporation. The 
slab, owing to its porosity, absorbs sufficient moisture 
for the germinating test. 

The Israel germinator has also some advocates; 
it is a zinc box about three inches in length, eight 
inches wide and five inches high, and is covered with 
glass. In this box are several — three to six — ger^ 
minating boxes, on the bottom of which are strips of 
some woolen material for the absorption of water; these 
hang over the boxes, absorbing water at one end and 
dropping it out at the other; by reason of the siphon- 
age, the seeds are thus kept constantly moist. 

A fact not to be overlooked is that, notwithstand- 
ing all the precautionary measures taken to procure an 
average sample of seed, and submitting it to ger- 
minating tests in germinators placed side by side, there 
will be a variation in the number of sprouts after the 



182 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

fifth day of about 15 per cent, and a final variation of 
10 per cent, at a maximum. 

One fact is certain : There is a great need of some 
uniformity in these germinating tests, and notwith- 
standing all possible care given to the subject, the 
dealer is frequently at a great disadvantage. Dippe, of 
Ouedlinburg, calls attention to observations made on 
his seed in Germany; when tested at Veffingen 
the result was 132 per cent.; at Brunswick, 178 per 
cent.; at Halle, 222 per cent. The same variations 
were noticed in percentage of moisture. We maintain 
it is urgent that purchasers keep their seed under the 
most desirable condition for preservation, as to heat 
and moisture. One of the most recent innovations in 
the way of germinators is a method of heating for eight 
hours a day, at a temperature of 28 degrees C. This is 
supposed to have the same effect as would light upon 
the germ development. 

Mistake in Using Number of Seed in Germinating 

Tests. 

Beet seeds are not sold according to number, 
but by weight; hence, the reason why germinating 
tests should be conducted on this basis. A great objec- 
tion to conducting these tests upon 100 seeds rather 
than 100 grams is, that the tendency always would be 
to select only the largest and best seeds, and the results 
obtained would be very misleading, while by weight 
all seeds, regardless of size, etc., are submitted to the 
germinating test. It is customary to count the num- 
ber of germinating sprouts in beet seed; but this leads 
to erroneous conclusions, for one seed gives several 
sprouts. What farmers most wish to know is, the 
chances of a given weight of purchased beet seed 
appearing above ground after once planted, for if one 
seed gives many sprouts only one is allowed to remain. 

Consequently, it is essential to know the number 



GERMINATION. 183 

of plants it is possible to obtain from a given weight 
of seed, and the number of seeds, simple or complex, 
that will germinate in ioo. One would be led into 
considerable error if the number of sprouts alone were 
' taken as a basis. For example, in ioo grams of ordi- 
nary seed there are 5250 separate seeds, and if each of 
these gave only one sprout the outcome would be 5250 
beets, providing all conditions were favorable. M. 
Pagnoul takes an interesting example from every-day 
practice, based upon the supposition that a seed dealer 
has mixed 50 grams of fresh-selected seed of the best 
quality, with fifty grams of inferior old seed. In fifty 
grams of good seed there are about 1750 seeds, and if 
each of these gave three sprouts, we would have 5250 
sprouts, or the number that would be acceptable. We 
may suppose that in fifty grams of old dead seed there 
are 3500 individual seeds that will not sprout, and yet 
this total, 5250 sprouts, after germination tests, would 
be most satisfactory. As only one plantlet is allowed 
to remain by practical experiment in planting, one 
would get 1750 beets instead of 5250, as expected. 
Consequently, if seed-testing stations accept the 
sprouting as a basis, they encourage fraud by the seed 
dealer, who will resort to a much-abused practice of 
mixing old seed with new very much under the condi< 
tions just described. 



CHAPTER IX. 
Preparing the Seed before Sowing 

Seeds in their normal state fall to the ground after 
a reasonable time subsequent to maturity. They remain 
in a sort of dormant state; having outlived the varia- 
tions of the weather, they give signs of life as soon as 
the favorable season returns. If we compare these seeds 
with those gathered and dried, the time needed for their 
germination in soil would necessarily be greater; the 
interval allows weeds, insects, etc., to take advantage of 
the circumstance. Hence, the importance, in most 
cases, of artificial means to stimulate the growth. As 
the exterior coating of the seed is frequently hard, some 
recommend a rolling between boards, which not only 
separates the seed, but allows the natural moisture of 
the soil to more thoroughly assist the embryo in its 
development. Practical experiments show that 100 
seeds that have been rubbed on a board by simple hand 
pressure gave 230 germs, while those planted without 
having been thus prepared gave only 200 germs. Sub- 
mitting seed for twelve hours to an air bath of 40 to 
50 degrees C. had about the same effect as friction. 

A certain amount of moisture is necessary, and if 
this can be given to the seed before sowing it will be 
that much time gained. If seeds are left for too 
long a period in water, much harm will follow, as the 
essentials for development during plant growth would 
be dissolved. Furthermore, there is also danger of 
very great evaporation when sown in dry soils, which 
soon absorb the moisture from the seed and after first 
sprouting, during a period of drouth, the embryo per- 
ishes. Special stress must, however, be given to the 

184 



PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 185 

importance of steeping the seed in water when the sow- 
ing has, for various reasons, to be clone very late in the 
season, which operation helps to regain lost time. 

During 1894 to 1897 there appeared only one 
important method for preparing seed, and this was 
Jensen's hot-water method. Seeds are steeped during 
six hours in water at the ordinary temperature; they 
are then taken out and left for ten to twelve hours, 
when they are steeped for from five to fifteen seconds 
in water at 53.5 degrees C. This operation is 
repeated thirty times in five minutes ; the seeds are then 
rapidly cooled and dried. While the method does 
increase the germinating power, Dr. Hollrung shows 
that it offers no advantage over cold water. Further- 
more, it is demonstrated that after 50 days, seeds pre- 
pared in hot or cold water, if not done to excess, are 
in exactly the same condition as they were prior to 
steeping. On the other hand, it is not desirable to have 
too rapid growth, and the practical farmers with whom 
we have discussed the question declare that there is 
nothing to be gained by seed preparation, as the forced 
plant is more delicate and is destroyed by any climatic 
change. However, where steeping is practiced it is 
desirable to get rid of the excess of liquid absorbed by 
the seeds which remained in water for several hours; 
they may be rolled in plaster or ashes. Sowing can take 
place after a few days; a certain precaution must be 
taken so as to prevent one seed becoming attached to 
another, also that the plaster be not used in excess; 
otherwise, the ultimate germination would be impossi- 
ble. From the plaster in a dry state it has been sug- 
gested to use it as a liquid ; two pounds of plaster com- 
bined with two quarts of water for four pounds of seed 
is said to give excellent results. In practice, about thirty 
pounds of seed are prepared at a time; they are subse- 
quently left to dry after being spread on the floor. By 
turning them over several times during the day, they 
will not adhere to one another. 



186 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

The plaster method has undergone certain vari- 
ations. When prepared on a larger scale, about 200 
lbs. of plaster are diluted in twenty-six gallons of water, 
to which are added 100 lbs. of Peruvian guano; 250 
lbs. of seed are rapidly combined with the product, pre- 
caution being taken to thoroughly mix the mass. 
The seeds are then spread out to dry. It is claimed 
that the vegetation will be considerably accelerated. 
There need be no apprehension of the seed being 
attacked by mice; the outer shell, or covering 
being well filled, there is no danger of holes, etc., 
offering shelter to insects, which, under ordinary cir- 
cumstances, is too frequently the case. The question 
arises, What were the actions of the sulphuric acid? 
Practical experiments appear to point out that caustic 
lime combined with eight times its weight of water will 
destroy the germinating power of seed. 

Pagnoul has shown that sulphuric acid diluted in 
sixteen parts of water has a beneficial effect upon ger- 
mination. Chloride and superphosphate of lime have 
also been tried, but it appears that the chlorine took an 
active part. As Humboldt and others have proven 
that the germination of steeped beet seed is accelerated 
by the action of that chemical, the rule appears to hold 
good, even for old seed ; sixteen parts of water and one 
part of hydrochloric acid slightly decreases the ger- 
minating power. If the water is only acidulated with 
the acid, the contrary is the case. Nitric acid, 1-100 
solution, prevented three-fourths of all seed planted 
from germinating. All seeds, even after twenty-four 
hours in the above solutions, retained their germinat- 
ing power; furthermore, it is maintained that the 
sprouts were more hardy than if they had been steeped, 
in pure water. 

It has been proposed to use sulphurous acid and 
chlorine to hasten germination ; great care is necessary 
in order not to destroy the germs. Hot, moist air is 



PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 187 

used, under which conditions the chlorine appears to 
oxidize the sulphurous acid, with formation of sul- 
phuric acid and hydrochloric acid, which, in turn, would 
attack the vegetable fiber unless great precautions be 
taken. It has been shown that sodic carbonate and 
sodic nitrate, or even sodic sulphate, in one-eighth 
solution, are not desirable stimulants. 

Boettger has declared that germination is consid- 
erably hastened by steeping the seed in weak solutions 
of soda, potassa or ammonia; in fact, two degrees Be 
solution of ammonia sulphate resulted in 71 per cent, of 
seed germinating in a week; possibly the ammonia 
from barnyard manure has a like effect. On the other 
hand, ammonia carbonate in one-eighth solution 
destroys completely the vitality of the seed; with a solu- 
tion of n per cent, chloride of sodium the stimulation 
was no greater than it w r as with distilled water. Alum 
appears to be favorable to germination. Pagnoul 
experimented with the following substances, all con- 
sidered separately: Phenic acid, 0.2 per cent.; potas- 
sic arsenate, 1 per cent.; zinc sulphate, 2 per cent.; 
sulphate of copper, 2 per cent.; also with magnesia sul- 
phate, 5 per cent, in 100 parts water; with the last the 
best results were obtained, the steeping lasting only 
five minutes. 

With 5 per cent, chloral e of ammonia. 

77 out of 100 germinate in 15 days. 

39 per gram " " " •• 

Saltpeter is highly recommended by some experts, 
as 85 per cent, of seed germinated in a week. Of the 
metallic salts which appear to influence germination, 
white sand, if mixed with 10 per cent, ferric-sulphate, 
will completely destroy the vitality of the seed; even 
2 per cent, had an important influence, which disap- 
pears entirely when only one-fifth per cent, is used. 

We would say, respecting these chemicals, that, 
even admitting that certain advantages are to be 
derived, they are hardly within easy reach of the aver- 



188 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

age farmer. We believe, all facts considered, that if seed 
be steeped in equal volumes of water and urine for 
about thirty hours, then piled up on the floor and cov- 
ered with defecation scums, satisfactory results can be 
obtained. The addition of a few drops of mineral oil 
to keep off insects, may have its advantages. The 
effect of the urine appears to stimulate the growth of 
the leaves; however, the question is not at present 
entirely settled. 

The preparations existing on the market for the 
stimulation of germination, quality of roots, etc., are, 
on the whole, very worthless, but are interesting from 
a scientific point of view. Many claim that the 
preparation of seed results in a decrease in the saccha- 
rine percentage of the resulting roots; with urine the 
reduction is 0.4; potassic carbonate, 0.25; a mixture of 
saltpeter and potassic carbonate, 0.5. On the other 
hand, Russian experiments show that there is an 
increase of 0.4 per cent, with superphosphate and an 
increase of 1.20 by the use of sodic nitrate in 
the preparation. 

The Dippe prepared seed attracted some attention, 
but from experiments of Breim it was discovered that 
the preparation was ammonia sulphate and a phos- 
phate; the latter used to furnish plant food as soon as 
the sprouts appeared. The Hodek method was to 
steep the seeds in warm water 30 to 40 degrees C, and 
adding 2 per cent, phenic acid; such seed must be soon 
planted to avoid complications. 

Experiments with other methods of preparing the 
seed are most interesting, viz.: Covering them with a 
weak solution of glue, and putting them into a fertilizer, 
so that the latter adhered to the outer surface of the 
grain. There can be no doubt but that this process 
diminishes the number of germinating seed and retards 
germination in general. The complete covering of the 
seed with an artificial fertilizer results in an increased 



PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 189 

development of leaves. It is thought that the elements 
of which a fertilizer, or liquid in which the seed is 
steeped, is composed should be of the same nature as 
the food of the seed itself. 

Respecting this question, we can pass in review 
the Ladurean experiments upon five lots of Vilmorin 

(Water 10 liters. ) 

1st | Ammonia sulphate 5 kilos. J 15 hours. 

(Seed 2 " ) 

(Water 10 liters. ) 

2d { Sodic nitrate 5 kilos. > 15 hours. 

(Seed 2 " ) 

( Water 10 liters. ) 

3d ] Superphosphate of lime 5 kilos. J 5 hours. 

( Soluble phosphate 12 per cent. ) 

( Water 10 liters. 

4th — ] Sulphate of ammonia 5 kilos. 

( Superphosphate of lime 5 kilos. 

( Water 10 liters. 

5th " Sodic Nitrate 5 kilos. 

( Superphosphate of lime 5 " 

seed. In all cases the beets appeared above ground at 
about the same time. The resulting beets from these 
seed were analyzed, and as a result, it was shown that 
those roots from the fifth parcel, having in the early 
stages of development soluble phosphoric acid, nitric 
acid and soda; in other words, the three elements that 
beets assimilated with the* greatest ease were the best 
for sugar making. It was further noticed that those 
roots which had soluble phosphoric acid at their dis- 
posal during their early stages were the best, conse- 
quently the practice of using this preparation is highly 
recommended. It is able to furnish nourishment dur- 
ing the period of transition from seed to root. It is 
well-known that those fertilizers which have combined 
in them Peruvian guano and bone superphosphates, 
with ash rich in potassa, etc., give excellent results. 
Many advocate the sowing of seed which have been 
previously sprouted. 

The preliminary operation for sprouting consists 
in soaking the seed in warm water for twenty-four 
hours, then drain and stir the saturated seed three or 
four times a day; in four days the sprouts will be vis- 



190 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

ible. They are then ready for sowing. If the weather 
does not permit such preparation, they are in the 
meantime placed in thin layers on marble slabs in a 
cool place. The object of this is to retard sprouting. 
The seed, when sown, appear above ground in about 
five days, if the temperature is favorable. Evidently 
under these conditions, the plantlets are sufficiently 
large to resist the ravages of insects. As regards the 
sowing of sprouted seed, it may be of interest to call 
attention to the slight depth, not over one-third of an 
inch, at which it should be placed in the soil. The 
farmer should keep before his eyes the following 
advice, given by the editor of The Sugar Beet: " Plant 
your seed early; use your own judgment regarding the 
possibility of a frost. If the latter has not to be con- 
tended with, the resulting roots will be much benefited, 
as they will have had a longer period of growth, thus 
permitting their complete maturity. If a cold snap 
should destroy your early crop, sow the second time, 
•immediately; the loss then will be of your seed only. 
If this precaution be not taken to save the cents, you 
will lose the dollars." 

The dangers to the entire crop from a continued 
dry spell, subsequent to sowing, are less for prepared 
seed than for that planted by the customary methods. 
In one case, the soil during the early growth, say for 
at least ten days, is sufficiently moist to permit the 
ascending sprout to appear above ground ; while in the 
other, often intervals of eighteen days will result in a 
surface crust which the young sprout cannot penetrate. 

Beet Seed Sowing for Sugar Factories. 

The time of sowing depends upon the country. 
Where the seeds are planted in Europe this is done 
between the middle of April and May, when possible, in 
March. This period gives the beets plenty of time for 
their development before harvesting. In California the 



PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 191 

factories work at a different period from anywhere else 
in the world, hence the time of planting also differs. 
There, the climate being mild, the period of sowing is 
not the same as in Nebraska, for example. In California 
the time of planting is from January to June; while in 
Nebraska, April 15 to May 20; New York, May. The 
possibility of early frost should never be lost sight of; 
when it is contended w T ith, a second sowing should be 
made without loss of time. We, for many years, w r ere 
not in favor of the principle, but we have concluded 
that it is better to lose the seed than to lose the crop 
for that season. 

From a technical point of view, Walkhoff's idea of 
determining the most desirable time for sowing, by 
making several observations as to temperature of soil, 
offers advantages. In France, an average mean of 6 
degrees C* (42.8 degrees F.), at a depth of about three 
inches, is considered an excellent guide; for the young 
root would have reached that depth the tenth day 
after sprouting. The question of preparing the seed 
prior to sowing has been discussed previously. No 
question has been more urged during the past twenty 
years than the importance of not economizing the seed. 
Notwithstanding this, circular after circular is sent to 
farmers, by those who should know how to look after 
their interests better than they do, by recommending 
ten pounds to the acre, while in Germany, forty pounds 
is not uncommon; however, we repeat here what we 
have constantly asserted, that twenty pounds is a safe 
average. The mechanical spacing between lines leads 
to far better results than if the so-called thinning-out 
method be adopted. 

*What we wish to convey by average mean is the average of obser- 
vations taken morning, afternoon and evening: 

( 6 A. M 36°F. 

Supposing at.... 12P. M 48°F. 

(6P.M 42°F . 



The average mean for the day is _126 

o 



126°F. 



192 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

Sowing broadcast has now been generally aban- 
doned for regular beet cultivation. However, when 
transplanting is considered, this method offers special 
advantages. During the early part of the present 
century, Mathien, Dombosle, Gasparin, and others, 
advocated this method, as it gives a longer period for 
the plants' development, and we have frequently pointed 
out this advantage. Some experience is required. The 
transplanting should be done on a cloudy, damp 
day; if not, the roots must be watered with a weak 
urine solution. Several days may elapse between the 
time the young roots are taken from the ground and 
transplanted; it is important, how r ever, to keep them in 
earth, with a small quantity of salt, in a vertical posi- 
tion. A hole is made in the ground, at a position 
determined by strings, which cross at mathematical 
intervals. It has been proposed to use a special 
appliance known as a transplanter. 

The most simple of all methods is to make a cut 
in the soil with a spade, and the soil is then closely 
pressed with the foot, — or in hills made by two plows; 
precaution must be taken to keep the neck well above 
the surface. It is generally found desirable to cut off 
the small, outer leaves, for these generally wilt and 
perish after the transplanting, under which circum- 
stances they would interfere with the healthy 
development of the young root. The enormous yields 
obtained by Koechlin would tend to show that there 
may be some very practical advantage, for he obtained 
sixty tons per acre. In this case, the seed for the same 
were sown broadcast in January, and transplanted in 
April. It is claimed, that under these conditions the 
annual beets are avoided, and that the roots obtained 
are so hardy that they can resist almost any variation 
of temperature. It is further maintained that the extra 
expense of the method is not as great as one might 
suppose, for the work can be done in January or Feb- 



PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 193 

ruary, when most farming hands have finished at 
the factory. 

However, there is much to be said against the 
method, unless it be in cases of seed production, and 
then the advantages are very numerous. As during 
the transplanting, the tip end of the beet is left in the 
ground, the chances are, as the roots develop in their 
new environment, they will be forked. Another fact 
to be considered is, that transplanted beets are very 
hairy in their nature, which, in the end, means expan- 
sion without depth, and decreased sugar percentage. 

What appears, to us, to be the principal role in 
this question of transplanting, is the possibility, when 
growing beets in the regular way, of filling open 
spaces, and many farmers place one-tenth of their 
entire field with beets which are to be subsequently 
used for this special purpose. On the other hand, many 
claim that this is unnecessary, for during the operation 
of thinning out, there are always more beets left over 
than are possible to utilize. This would be a mistake, 
for the thinning operation should be done rapidly. 

The hand sowing, at marked places on the field, 
in which are placed several seed, is not to be recom- 
mended, on account of expense. It has been shown 
that machine-sown seed always give better results 
than hand methods, it being more regular in its work- 
ing; the depth, etc., being more constant. The seed 
drills, which work at regular distances, and by clusters, 
are only in a measure to be recommended. The 
objection to them is, that if the lines are eighteen 
inches apart, and spacing of beets in lines ten inches, 
if one of these clusters is attacked by insects, there 
remains a space of twenty inches on the line, which 
would mean very large beets, and small sugar percent- 
age. Upon general principles, it is very doubtful if the 
cluster method of sowing is ever to be commended; 
for the thinning-out that follows necessarily weakens 

13 



194 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 



the surrounding soil of the plantlet that remains. Far 
better sow in lines and space mechanically; great 
care must be taken to keep the roots in very straight 
lines; a practice difficult to convince our American 
farmer. 

We shall later discuss the seed-drill question. 
Seed may be planted in three positions: Squares, 
lozenges, and rectangles The engravings (Figs. 56-59) 
give the reader an idea of the amount of space lost by 
each method; the space lost is less in Fig. 56 than in 
the other cases, the circle representing the limit that 





Fig. 56. 



Fig 57. 



~H 


} — < 


►- < 


1 * 1 






1 


















c 


— 


> ■■ '1 


r. . 

> ■ ■- - 


►— . 




Fig. 58. Fig. 59. 

each beet may draw its plant food from the soil. The 
square method may be used in certain cases, as for seed 
production on the Legras farm, but for American 
growers it would be too expensive; the rectangle 
method is preferable. Upon general principles, it is 
better to have not less than sixteen inches. 

It has long ago been demonstrated that both the 
farmer and manufacturer have advantages in planting 
the beets as near together as the nature of the soil will 
allow. Great distance tends to increase the size of the 



PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 



195 



beet, and diminish its saccharine quality, while on the 
other hand, the nearer together the roots are, the more 
numerous they are, on a given area, and their total 
weight per acre is not much inferior to that obtained 
with greater distance. The importance of keeping the 
roots with the least possible space between one and 
another was a question insisted upon nearly ioo years 
ago, and since then each country has taken up the 
question in turn. In France, the Pellet experiments 



Distance Between Rows. 



20 c. m. ( 7.9 inches). 
30 c. m. (11.8 inches). 
60 c. m. (23.6 inches). 



Weight of Roots. 



354 grams (12.4 oz.) 

460 " (16.1 oz.). 

1,200 " ( 2.6 Mas.) 



Sugar Per Cent. 



14.2 
14.7 
13.6 



On the other hand 


, Pagnoul arrived at similar results. 


Distance 

Between 

Rows. 


Distance 

Between 

Beets. 

33 c. m. | 2' 

25 c. m. | p' 








50 c. m. 
33 c. m. 


830 grains. 
800 " 
701 " 
490 " 


9.5J 
10.2 
10. 
13.3 


Yield sugar per acre. .3,000 lbs 

Y^ield sugar per acre.. 4,400 lbs. 
Salts absorbed 0.6 % 







The most important series of investigations yet made 
spacing are those of Petermann (Belgium). 
The experiments were about as follows : 



respecting 



Variety of 
Seed, 


1st Series. 


2d Series. 


3d Series. 




CO 


6 

»h y 

cs y 
go 
co 

10.96 
10.00 
13.64 


40 c. m.x 25 cm. 

(15.7"x9.8") 

Yield Hectares 

(2Vs acres.) 




So 

e 

? y 
-*> . 

S 

cc 


35 c. m.x 18 c. m. 

(13.7"x7") 

Yield Hectares 

(2% acres). 




£y 



Vilmorin seed. 


37 tons. 
41 " 

30 " 


47 tons. 

47 4i 
32 " 


11.30 
11.00 

13.88 


46 tons. 
45 «• 
32 •■ 


11.60 
10.80 
14.93 



with Vilmorin seed showed that at 7.9 inches between 
rows the beets weighed 12.4 ounces and contained 
14.2 per cent, sugar, while at 23.6 inches they weighed 
2.6 lbs. and contained 3.6. From which it may be con- 
cluded that the best results are at 15.7 x 9.8 inches; less 
than this is not desirable. Schultz (Germany) claims 
that the best results are at distances of 14.4 inches 
between rows and 12 inches spacing of roots in rows. 
One fact is certain, that if only 13.7 inches are between 



196 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

rows and seven inches between beets, most of the agri- 
cultural implements now in existence could not be 
used. Consequently, upon general principles, it is 
desirable to adapt one's self to local conditions, arrang- 
ing so that an average cart can have free circulation 
between rows. If beets are in any way bruised there 
is sure to follow a loss of sugar. 

It is claimed that beets cultivated near together 
have greater maturing powers than those far apart, and 
that they are better able to resist the prolonged drouth. 
It is very essential under such conditions that the soil 
be worked at a considerable depth. It is self-evident 
that when fertilizers are used their assimilation by the 
plant during its development must necessarily be 
greater at short than at long distances. During 
the latter condition, the drainage soils carry off a large 
portion of the plant food, producing material effects 
upon the root. Realizing the importance of cultivating 
beets close together, the manufacturer frequently offers 
prizes,* the value of which \aries with the number of 
plants obtained to the acre. In theory, it would be 
possible to calculate the amount of seed required, but 
the results obtained would be very misleading. 

Some German experiments show that the coeffi- 
cient of purity increases by planting near together. 
The experiments were: 





18x16 Inches. 


12x12 Inches 




C. P. 

89.1 
86.9 
85.4 
86.1 
85.9 
82.9 


C. P. 


No. 1 


90.4 


2 


90.3 


3 


88.6 




87.2 


5 -r. 


88.6 




88.2 



The fertilizers were made to vary on each patch; for 
example, in No. I Record there were 12.8 lbs. nitrogen 
in the form of sodic nitrate, and 51 lbs. phosphoric acid, 



*For example : 

For 30,000 beets to the acre $0.25 per ton 

» 40,000 " " " ... 0.40 " " 

" 50,000 " " " 0.60 " " 



PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 197 

while No. 6 had 76.8 lbs. nitrogen and 115 lbs. phos- 
phoric acid. An interesting conclusion respecting these 
results is, that by planting near together the bad effects 
of sodic nitrate, when used in excess, may in a meas- 
ure be overcome. 

The sixteen to eighteen inches between rows and 
ten-inch spacing in rows appears to be the most favor- 
ed among Continental beet farmers of Germany, 
Austria and France. This arrangement allows about 
nine beets per square yard, or one beet per square foot, 
corresponding to nineteen to twenty tons to the acre, 
supposing each beet weighs one pound. When efforts 
are made to obtain ten to twelve beets upon the same 
area, the results are not, as a general rule, very satis- 
factory. The idea of 16 x 16 inches, so as to allow a 
thorough working between rows by use of the culti- 
vator, would result in large roots, but of a doubtful 
quality. When it is desired to have only five to six 
beets per square yard, under almost the conditions just 
mentioned, the best results appear to be obtained 
with 15.7 x 16.4 inches. 

Germination in the Soil. 

In previous pages we have mentioned the fact that 
from the time the seeds are placed in the storerooms 
to dry, etc., until they are planted, they remain in a 
condition of torpor, from which they awaken as soon 
as they are placed in the proper environment for excit- 
ing a return to their former vitality. The germ and its 
requisite food are made visible under the microscope. 
When the three requisites, air, moisture and heat, are 
furnished, the white point, showing the first signs of 
life, soon finds its way through the pericarp. The age 
of seed has a very important influence upon the vital- 
ity; a few words respecting this question are of interest. 

Mr. Fred Knauer has made some interesting 
experiments in this direction. Eight beet seeds of 



198 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 



average size, from a factory in Poland, collected in 
1846; after an elapse of 37 days, one plant appeared 
above ground, after five months there were ten. From 
these experiments, it is concluded that seeds retain 
their germinating power during a very long period, 
but they require considerable time to waken from their 
long torpor; even after two years, this tardy germi- 
nating tendency is evident. On the other hand, Marek 
has made a series of very important observations. 



Age of Seed. 


Number of 
Sprouts per 100 
Seeds, 14 Days. 

158 
174 
150 
131 
146 
135 
124 
112 
101 

88 

95 

34 


Number of 
Sprouts per Kilo. 


^Value of Seed. 
Normal is 100. 


year 


66,700 
63.600 
56,400 
51,685 
68.731 
63,800 
54.846 
47,466 
43,773 
27.200 
33,600 
15,250 


100 


1 " 


100 


2 years 


100 


3 " 


97.7 


4 " 


100 


5 " 


100 


6 " 


97.5 


7 " 


94.9 


8 " 




9 " 

10 " 


54.2 
61.0 


11 " 


34.5 







From this table we realize how important it is not to 
use seed over five years old, for after that age their 
deterioration is rapid, notwithstanding several asser- 
tions to the contrary mentioned elsewhere. 

Moisture. 

Without moisture, germination is impossible, 
and w r ith an excess there are other difficulties 
to be dreaded; opinions very much differ as to the 
advantage or disadvantage of having the moisture on 
the surface or at some inches below. If the soil is per- 
fectly dry, the seed remains dormant. On the other 
hand, if there is a natural moisture, germination will 
commence, and if there be a sudden change in weather, 
there are dangers of a complete destruction of the 
young plant during this embryonic development. 
These difficulties may, in a measure, be overcome by a 
preliminary preparation of the seed, in which case the 
soil with natural moisture gives the best results. Even 



PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 



199 



in cases of prolonged drouth, in the several inches of 
soil through which the ascending sprout has passed, 
there will be found sufficient moisture for the 
requirement. 

Many of these difficulties are overcome by a 
thorough working of soils intended for beets. The 
ambient temperature has a great influence on the 
amount of moisture a soil retains ; while the actual tem- 
perature beneath the surface is lower than in the air, 
the difference is not as great as might be imagined. 
However, experiments have been made in this direc- 
tion and we can conclude that during twenty-four 
hours at 73.5 degrees F., the surface will have lost one- 
fourth of its total moisture; after the second day, the 
drying process will have extended to a depth of one- 
tenth of an inch. Consequently, if seed be placed in 
the ground at a depth of one to two inches, depending 
upon the texture of the soil, during an unusual dry 
spell, it would not penetrate to the strata where is 
lodged the seed during the first ten days after sowing. 

Briem's experiments on moisture of soils are 
important. He used two kinds of seed, one dried in 
the air and the other steeped in water; his results were 
as follows: 



Moisture 


of Soil. 


Kays Before Appearance Above Ground. 


Normal Seed. 


Prepared Seed. 


22.3 pei 


cent. 







19.7 


«t 


11 




17.1 


i< 


4 




15.0 


(< 


5 




t 12.8 


tf 


4 


6 


11.8 


II 


5 


4 


9.9 


(( 


5 


4 


7.3 


II 


8 


4 


6.2 


II 


15 


6 



From these experiments it is concluded that if the 
soil contains 22 per cent, of water, germination is not 
possible; from 19 to 20 per cent., very slowly; from 7 to 
17 per cent, of moisture, the soil appears to be in the 
best condition. Below 5 per cent., germination is 
impossible, unless the seed has been previously pre- 



200 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

pared, which again shows the practical advantage of 
steeping seed. 

The experiments of Schultze-Fleeth, as regards 
the power of absorption of soil,* are as follows: 



100 fts. 


Absorb lbs. Water. 


Lose in 4 Days at 
65.5° F. % of Water. 


Sand 


25 
40 

70 

85 


88 4 


Clay 


52 


Fine calcareous 


31.3 

28 







We cannot conclude from these data that the time 
and manner of sowing must depend upon the soil being 
used and the country where this special cultivation is 
practiced. If there is danger of abnormal heat during 
the first few weeks after sowing on sandy soil, the 
operations should be conducted as rapidly as possible. 
Herein is one of the important reasons why fall plow- 
ing is preferable to spring plowing, for the rains just 
before winter saturate the soil with moisture, and this 
surface is turned under. The ice and snow form a cov- 
ering and the moisture is retained until the sowing 
period comes around, leaving at the same time, air 
passages, a condition essential for healthy germination. 

Heat. 

Which, in other words, means life. Just as 
the luxuriant vegetation of a tropical clime differs from 
the northern regions of our planet, so does the change 
of season affect plants. The sap that had gone into the 
roots now returns to give the new life to that portion 
which had remained dormant during several months. 
The hand of man in this question can help nature. By 
many authorities it is admitted that 130 degrees C. 
(266 degrees F.) are needed for seed to germinate in 
the soil. However, this must not be taken to the let- 



*The soils of Chino, California, have considerable moisture at a 
great depth ; the roots in that dry climate, in search of the moisture, 
need to penetrate several strata and are very elongated and rich in 
sugar. On the other hand, soils near Lelii, Utah, are irrigated 
during the early stage of the beets' development, and very satisfac- 
tory results are thus obtained. 



PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 201 

ter, for practical experiments show that when the 
ambient temperature remains at 48 degrees F., about 
twenty days are needed for seed to appear above 
ground. While, on the other hand, at 63 degrees F., 
the rows are distinctly visible in about three days. 
Consequently, on general principles, it may be admit- 
ted that the rapidity of germination is in direct ratio to 
the ambient temperature. 

It is claimed that in preparing beet seed, it is pos- 
sible to give a certain number of degrees of heat in 
advance, and in connection with this matter, there 
would be a gain in the number of days for sprouting.* 
For soils in general, the requisite time for germination 
may be considered inversely proportional to its tem- 
perature. The cold has an important effect, and an 
early frost will kill the germs of a large number of 
seeds planted; hence, the desirability of being very lib- 
eral with the quantity of seed used. It is admitted that 
germination ceases at about 3 degrees C, or at a max- 
imum, 30 degrees C. The heating and cooling of soils 
during the spring of the year has an important influ- 
ence not to be overlooked. The warmth during the 
day and the cooling at night are said to have an accel- 
erating effect on germination. It must be thoroughly 
understood that the action of low temperature on beet 
seed is very slight, providing germination has not com- 
menced, and is very destructive after the first signs of 
life have manifested themselves. The best authorities 
admit that seeds germinate under the best conditions 



*If seeds, for example, remain two days in a liquid at 22.5° C, the 
total heat thus given would be 45° C. ; the remaining number of de- 
grees to be furnished then becomes 130° C— (minus) 45° C.=85° C. If during 
draining of seed the ambient temperature is 15° C. the heat left to be fur- 
nished would be 70° C. If the temperature of the soil is 10° C. 
and remain constant, then germination would take place _70 

10 
or seven days. If there had been no preparation, the number of days 
for germination would have been 130 

"jo^IS days. The preparing of seed 

lias thus been a gain of six days. 



202 SUGAR BEET SEED. ] 

when the average temperature of the soil remains about 
7 degrees C. (37.6 degrees F). 

v Air. 

When we consider that nearly one-fourth of 
the total vegetable earth is air, it becomes evident what 
an important role air plays. Therefore, certain precau- 
tions must be taken to sufficiently work the soil, so that 
the air circulation is not too free, as it would soon evap- 
orate all the moisture, and thus do more harm than 
good. Evidently, without oxygen, seed cannot ger- 
minate. During the action of heat and moisture, life 
cannot exist unless there is oxygen to help the plant; 
during its feeding process the albumen at the disposal 
of. the germ cannot undergo the requisite transforma- 
tion. That certain microscopic organisms help this 
transformation, there is not the slightest doubt. Mois- 
ture carries these ferments into the centre of the 
embryo and the action of the diastase completes the 
first stages of plant development. Experiments have 
been made with the view to substituting other gases for 
air, but they led to very secondary results. 

Light. 
As soon as the young leaves appear above 
ground, light has an important part to play. The 
chlorophyll then brings about the interchange of cer- 
tain gases, and, furthermore, helps to decompose or to 
transform those elements of which the vegetable organ- 
ism is made up. These chlorophyll granules, which 
consist of green-colored protoplasm, bring about 
these changes which result in starch formation, which 
will be subsequently distributed through the root. 
The chlorophyll, separating the carbon from the car- 
bonic acid taken from the air, liberates the oxygen 
absorbed and supplies the carbon to form a carbo- 
hydrate, such as starch, by combining with the hydro- 
gen and oxygen of the water of the soil taken up by 



PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 



203 



the rootlet. It must never be overlooked that these 
transformations cannot occur unless the plant be sup- 
plied with iron. We all know, also, that with the 
absence of light the chlorophyll pigment is not formed. 
It is interesting to follow the plantlet from its very first 
appearance above ground. 

Growth of the Planted Seed. 

The seed of the sugar beet, if placed in the ground 
under favorable conditions (heat, air and moisture), 





Fig. 60. Fig. 61. 

germinates; the outer or harder portion becomes soft- 
ened, and thus permits the penetrating of the descend- 
ing root, which shoots in a given direction until it 
reaches O (see Fig. 6o), from which point the ascend- 
ing root becomes apparent. The latter diverges at an 
angle of about 15 degrees, while the former continues 
in its downward course, the growth upward corre- 
sponding to it. If the depth, H (Fig. 61), at which 



204 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 



the seed has been planted, be not sufficient, or if the 
soil be too loose (which is the case when proper rolling 
has been neglected), there will be a considerable change 
when O is reached. 

Instead of the seed, S, remaining underground 
and the ascending root gradually rinding its way 
upward, as in Fig. 60, the seed will be carried upward 
and occupy the various positions, one, two, three, four, 




fig. 62. 
Diagram shows two germs on the same seed which have sprouted on 

different days. 

etc. When gravity does not separate the hard cover- 
ing from the plantlet, it will still adhere, as shown in G; 
under these circumstances, the plant generally per- 
ishes. If we examined even more closely, we could 
follow the development of the seed leaves. 

Nos. 1 to 5 (Fig. 61) show five positions of the 
growth of the ascending and descending root; the seed 
leaves remain wrapped around the albumen, so-called, 



PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 



205 



which furnishes the nutritive matter the plant requires 
during these first stages of growth. The root absorbs 
water and the dissolved mineral substances of the soil. 
This water reaches to the cell of the leaves; in its pas- 
sage it passes from cell to cell and along some of the 

/ / : / 




Fig. 63. 
tubes of the vascular tissue. During this upward 
motion, it meets starch, which is traveling downward. 
Under the influence of protoplasm, in some way or 
another, nitrogen is formed, from which, with sulphur 
and the starch constituents, albuminoids are produced. 



206 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 



These are essential for protoplasm development, of 
which the plant cells are made up. 

The seed leaves, as shown in Fig. 61, penetrate 
the surface soil doubled, and have a natural tendency, 
m consequence thereof, to rotate with some force, — to 
assume an upright position. This seems to be assisted 
by the inclined position of the ascending root. The 
seed leaves then have not yet opened. This takes place 
in two wavs: Either directly, as shown in Fig. 65, or as 
in Fig. 66, where they are at first convex, and assume 
their natural position after some days. 

Interesting experiments to determine the most 
desirable depth at which to plant beet seed have 





Fig. 64. 



Fig. 65. 



Fig. 66. 



resulted in some practical facts; among these we may 
mention, that seeds were planted to a depth of three 
inches, and uncovered after 200 days. As soon as 
exposed to the air they gave evidence of full vigor. In 
most cases, however, when the soil was damp, germi- 
nation took place at this depth; but these germs being 
unable to come to the surface, died, never having gone 
beyond the first stage of their existence. 

It is evident that if the seed be at too great a depth 
it cannot reach the upper surface. After an interval 
of time, if the resistance to the ascending shoot is over- 



PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 



207 



come, as it has been retarded in its development, it 
will frequently perish. And yet, when too near the 
surface it will be exposed to the variations of the 
weather. Hence, the importance of some approximate 
idea of just what the most desirable depth for planting 
should be. No definite rule can be given, as it varies 
with the climate and soil, and in many cases should be 
determined by practical experience. Groven's experi- 
ments give some idea of the variations in the number 
of plantlets appearing above ground after a period of 
days and at various depths. 



Depth of Plant- 


First Plants Made 
Their Appearance 


Number After 


ing. 


8 Days. 


16 Days. 


0.39 inch. 


5 days. 


19 


24 


0.78 " 


5% " 


14 


21 


1.18 inches. 


6% " 


15 


23 


1.57 


6V 2 " 


15 


17 


r 1.97 " 


6 3 4 " 


8 


18 


2.76 " 


8% " 


4 


14 


3.54 " 


10 " 


1 


7 



He, therefore, concluded that about one-half to 
one inch was the best depth. On the other hand, 
Walkhofr took up the subject and concluded that if we 
admit that the soil has a temperature of 15 degrees C. 
(59 degrees F.), the number of days for seeds to appear 
above ground at various depths was as follows: 

For seed at a depth of 6 m. ra. (0.24 inch) 13 days. 

" '« " " 13 m. m. (0.51 inch) 9 '• 

" " " " 19 m. m. (0.74 inch) 9 " 

•« •• " " 26 m. m. (1.02 inches) 9 •« 

When the surface of the soil is caked for one rea- 
son or another, the seeds are unable to penetrate it, 
even when one-tenth inch in thickness. Hence, the 
importance of keeping the soil in a thoroughly open 
condition. If the seed is not sufficiently covered it 
will rot; if too much covered, it does not show itself. 
Consequently, it is a question of texture of soils ; if very 
light, the sowing should be at a certain depth ; if heavy, 
near the surface. 



CHAPTER X. 
Production of Superior Seed. 

One of the original methods for improving the 
quality of selected mothers, consists in furnishing such 
roots with increased amounts of nutrients required for 
the amelioration of the seed to be formed. A perfora- 
tion is made in the root and this is filled with sugar, 
starch, etc., or any nitric element needful for plant 
development, with a view to seed production. In the 
case of sugar beets the cavity may be filled with sand 
and 50 per cent, pure sugar. Experiments show that 
it does not matter how the sugar is supplied; this sub- 
stance leads to seeds possessing hereditary principles, 
from which may be grown beets rich in sugar. 

According to another rather strange method to 
obtain beets very rich in sugar, the roots are to be 
grown from selected seed raised in conservatories 
heated artificially, and in which large quantities of car- 
bonic acid gas are introduced. At night such green- 
houses are to be lighted by gas or electricity. The 
mothers, when selected, are to be planted and tended 
in the usual manner. We may also mention the 
Braune steam method. The steam is circulated through 
pipes that are^ buried in the ground. Between the 
rows are other pipes, which distribute carbonic acid. 
During the night, electric lights are kept burning. 
With the view to preventing a second growth due to 
late rains, the beets may be covered by special glass 
frames, such as are used in patch gardening; these do 
not prevent a free circulation of air. 

208 



PRODUCTION OF SUPERIOR SEED. 209 

The results obtained by this method have never 
been brought to our notice. However, this is a hint in a 
direction that might possibly lead to some very impor- 
tant results. In the patented method of circulating 
carbonic acid through pipes, the gas escapes through 
special holes; the quantity of gas used increases as the 
beets become larger. It is essential also to have 
artificial light during the night; such roots are said to 
be very superior and may be sent to a mother-selecting 
laboratory. 

Production cf Beet Seed by Use of Very Small 

Mothers. 

As we have previously pointed out the general 
opinion prevailing that very small beets are not desir- 
able for beet-seed production, it is of interest to con- 
sider, in some detail, the small-beet method as used in 
Austria, and which, in many cases, has led to most sat- 
isfactory results. Beet seed, as it is found on the mar- 
ket, is either the direct outcome of selected mothers, 
or is from mothers obtained from the descendants of a 
selected beet after several generations. The expense 
and difficulties of seed production by direct methods 
have led most dealers to use the latter system, which, 
unless extreme care is used, is open to many objections. 
The more atavism gains in strength, the further the 
seed is from the original parent; however, numerous 
cases may be cited where even after the fourth gen- 
eration, the results continue to be satisfactory. In 
Germany, the so-called patch method continues to be 
used with success, without any special complaint from 
manufacturers. In the best cases, seeds are sown from 
selected mothers, and the resulting roots furnish seed 
for the trade. In Bohemia, some variations have been 
made from the German method, and the craze for very 
small mothers has been pushed to an excess, and it 
frequently happens that the seed furnished is worthless. 

14 



210 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

The best results, however, appear to be obtained 
on soils that have been properly prepared. Small roots 
must be of regular shape. The supposed objection to 
small beets is, that they mature badly and bring about 
great irregularity in the crop of seed. But, by having 
the patches arranged in several categories, large, aver- 
age and small, it is possible, even with small beets, to 
obtain a maturity of considerable regularity; those of 
the large are followed by the middle size, and last of 
all, the very small mothers. 

In fact, from Schaafs experiment, it is shown that 
small mothers obtained by close planting of seed from 
selected beets have the following advantage: They 
very much increase in size when they are planted in the 
spring, and they penetrate to a considerable depth in' 
the soil, which is followed by many strong lateral roots 
before the portions above ground show much sign of 
life. During very windy weather, they remain in posi- 
tion, and owing to their excessive soil penetration can 
struggle very considerably against excessive drouth. 
The roots of mothers which are planted the second 
year, and which have obtained their full development 
during their first year's growth, will undergo very few 
comparative changes, while above the surface the vege- 
tation is excessive. With certain varieties of beets these 
mothers are forced out of their position by a very slight 
cause, and in most cases the vibration is constant and 
continued, leaving a funnel-like space between the root 
and soil, and as a result their points of contact with the 
ground are very few in number. 

Some of the practical experiments with seed from 
very small roots and from normal beets have led to the 
following results: 



Density (Brix). 
Polarization .. . 
Purity 



Normal Beets 

600 to 700 grams 

(1.3 to 1.5 lbs). 



23.0 
20.2 
87.0 



Small Beets 
(0.06 to 0.2 lbs). 



23.7 
20.3 
85.4 



PRODUCTION OF SUPERIOR SEED. 



211 



From which it is difficult to see just in what the 
advantage consists. 

Another table of special interest shows that with 
small roots the weight of seed obtained is greater than 



with large roots. 





Large Mothers. 


Medium. 


Very Small. 




(J rains. 


Ct rains. 


Grams. 


"Weight when planted 


442 to 337 


iz lo 66 


29 to 10 


Weight after seed has 










972 to 710 


417 to 400 


690 to 160 


Increase of weight 








during seed forma- 








tion 


530 to 271 


361 to 328 


676 to 143 


"Weight of seed ob- 










375 to 177 


470 to 120 


475 to 96 


Total increase of 








weight of the root, 








seed, stalk, etc 


1,423 to 398 


1.200 to 351 


1,171 to 374 



From which it is concluded that small beets weighing 
29 grams (one ounce) to 10 grams (0.35 ounce), when 
planted in patches, increased in weight 1171 grams to 
374 grams (41 ounces to 13 ounces), and furnished 475 
to 96 grams (16.6 ounces to 3.3 ounces) seed per beet. 
Very small beets, when planted, demand that the 
soil be well prepared and that a proper fertilizer be 
used. It is claimed that small beets give fewer small 
stems and small seed than do large beets. The stalks 
of these have rapid and excessive development, thus 
absorbing the plant food in reserve in the neck of the 
mother. If excessive heat and dry weather follow, the 
root in the soil has no longer the strength to meet the 
demand of the stalk, nor can it withdraw the requisite 
plant food from the surrounding soil; the stalks are 
consequently in a condition to yield poor seed. Just 
the reverse of these conditions is found with the small 
mothers, which, as before explained, the development 
of the root and stalks being in harmony with each 
other, are in a better condition to meet the climatic 
variations w T ith which we frequently have to contend. 



212 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

Reproduction of Beets and Seed from Buds, 

Leaves with Skin, and Also from 

Fractional Slices. 

The beet has undergone endless changes through 
generations, and the many existing types and varieties 
show just what man can accomplish in helping nature 
in her evolutionary methods, when superior seed pro- 
duction is aimed at. 

ist. The essential is to use beets having as nearly 
as possible the same exterior characteristics and the 
same physiological tendencies. 

2d. To prevent formation of hybrids during 
flowering. 

3d. To give special care to agricultural methods, 
thus allowing the plant to complete its normal 
evolution. 

The usual German and French methods of supe- 
rior seed production consist in planting the best type 
of superior beets separately, and the seeds from these 
form the basis of special patches; constant observations 
are made during their development. If only a few 
roots in each patch promising the most favorable 
results were alone kept, the method of selection would 
be very costly and the results obtained would be doubt- 
ful. While this method, under proper care, keeps out 
all roots showing signs of atavism, it is not desirable, 
in most cases, to push the selection beyond the third 
generation. The systematic bud method is not only 
feasible, but promises considerable success. It is also 
possible to graft pieces of skin on other beets. It fre- 
quently happens that necks of beets after harvesting 
are sliced off and left on the field ; these are exposed to 
the frosts, etc., of the winter and still retain their vital- 
ity and in the spring will actually take root and 
yield seed. 

Beet Seed from Buds. 

We were among the first to call attention to the 
new departure in the production of beet seed from 



PRODUCTION OF SUPERIOR SEED. 213 

buds, introduced in 1890 by Professor Novoczek, 
which had been applied to many other plants, but not 
to beets. While several years have now elapsed since 
then, and numerous experiments have been made, the 
question still remains to be satisfactorily understood. 
We called attention to the fact that the saccharine 
quality of beets increases with the number of its con- 
centric rings ; to each of these correspond leaves which 
are subsequently followed by buds. "It consequently 
follows that the richer the beet, the more numerous are 
the buds and the better suited are such roots for the 
multiplication of their species." Later, we said, " It is 
shown that after the buds have been planted in a suit- 
able soil, after about two weeks leaves develop; and a 
hairy growth corresponding to lateral roots soon 
appears." To which we may add, that while these roots, 
as planted by some investigators, have a very different 
shape from the original mother, they are said to be 
possessed of exactly the same characteristics. How- 
ever, it is claimed that there may be obtained seed, 
which, in time, will yield roots which tend more and 
more to be the shape of the original parent. 

On some farms visited by us, the mother, after 
being selected and found to contain about 16 per cent, 
sugar, is planted, with its upward leaf development 
kept under control by suitable horizontal frames; this 
has a tendency to increase the bud formation, under 
which circumstances it is possible to obtain 280 buds 
from a single root. It is not desirable, however, in 
most cases, to use more than forty of these, which some 
agrarians recommend should be planted as soon as 
they appear, while others declare that they should be 
taken off at night and planted the next day. The pre- 
caution of not watering the soil for two days must not 
be overlooked, and great care is necessary to remove 
all particles of skin adhering to the parent beet, as from 
these other roots would soon grow. 



214 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

The scar made on the mother by the bud removal 
should be cauterized with charcoal. It is also urged 
that when buds have attained sufficient size, which 
means two months' growth under glass, the air ven- 
tilation should be gradual. Transplanting is the next 
operation, pinching off the larger leaves, also part of 
their hairy growth. The hole made to receive these 
bud plants should be sufficiently watered; better select 
a cloudy day for the transplanting. Recent exper- 
iments appear to demonstrate beyond cavil that it is 
possible to plant a series of buds side by side, under 
exactly the same conditions, and obtain roots very 
irregular in shape, but yet having a greater resem- 
blance to each other than is now obtained by most 
improved methods of physical and chemical selection 
in ordinary beet-seed production. 

This production of beets from buds and without 
seed was patented in Germany and introduced on a 
very extended scale by Knauer at Grobers. It was 
claimed that the force of the beet was strengthened, 
and there was less danger of atavism, and little or no 
danger of the creation of bastards or hybrids. Just where 
the bud was to be taken was, for a certain time, a ques- 
tion of experimentation; the bud from the neck is found 
to be the best. Doerstling, a chemist in charge of the 
Knauer farms, says that at Grobers there is, first, a 
physical selection, according to the shape, size, etc., of 
the beet. These are numbered and put aside in silos 
until the following spring, when a slight topping is 
necessary. The temperature of the mothers in silos 
should not be higher than 15 degrees C. At the end 
of February and in March, the planting is continued; 
after four or five days the buds appear. At intervals 
of ten days the buds are detached; however, the first 
taken should be two weeks after their appearance. The 
skin taken off with the bud should be just sufficient to 
hold the leaves together. Experience shows that it is 



PRODUCTION OF SUPERIOR SEED. 215 

far better to break than to cut off the bud, and allow 
it. to wilt during the night before planting. 

A mother beet can furnish buds during several 
months, but those of July do not appear sufficiently 
vigorous. These sprouts are placed under glass; those 
having, after five or six weeks, developed roots are 
placed in a medium consisting of a mixture of earth, 
sand and wood charcoal. As soon as they have suffi- 
cient strength, the transplanting follows; the cultiva- 
tion during their growth does not differ from that 
necessary for ordinary sugar beets. During the period 
of the past four years at Grobers, 1242 mother beets 
have been used for this operation; out of this number 
only nine did not give buds; the 1233 remaining gave 
56,155 buds, or forty-five from each mother. Not- 
withstanding the care bestowed upon these plants, 
every year a certain number perish before the roots are 
formed. One may rely on 10 per cent, of buds. It has 
been noticed that beets that come from buds have 
absolutely the characteristics of their mothers, in shape, 
leaf formation, color, etc. About 92 per cent, of these 
beets obtained by Knauer are rose color, the others 
slightly yellow. 

The main fact to be noticed in this method of selec- 
tion, is the care and time needed to achieve the results 
looked for. And while it allows one to reproduce 
beets like a very high standard or Elite, each beet of 
itself can give birth to a whole family which will retain 
their superior qualities for a considerable number of 
years. Hence, the reasons why each beet from which 
the bud is taken must be considered separately, num- 
bered, cataloged, tabulated, etc. It is claimed that it 
is not the richest beet that gives the greatest number 
of buds, but the heaviest. When considered from a 
leaf standpoint, it has been noticed that those leaves 
with long stems, those high or low, those fringed or 
even with dark green borders, all give good results. 



216 SUGAR BEET SEED. 



On the other hand, those roots with very high or long- 
necks are not desirable. At Grobers it is concluded 
that the question is still in its experimental stage, and 
that at least ten years will be required before practical 
results from a commercial standpoint can be obtained. 

Numerous experiments in France, in planting 
buds, show that roots of the same line are almost 
identical in shape and in the formation of their leaves, 
while the roots obtained keep well in a properly con- 
structed silo during a period of many months. It must 
never be lost sight of, however, that nitric fertilizers 
should never be used alone; that under all circum- 
stances superphosphates should be added. The objec- 
tion to nitrogen in excess is, that it maintains the vege- 
tative action for too long a period and retards very 
considerably the maturity of the beet; under which cir- 
cumstances, there is danger of a second growth, with 
a corresponding loss of sugar. 

In America, in 1891, the Nebraska Experiment 
Station took up the question of production of beets 
from buds. " High-grade beets were selected and 
buds started in a greenhouse. After rooting, they were 
removed from the greenhouse and planted in the gar- 
den.'' The beet obtained was not very satisfactory in 
appearance, nor sufficiently long to yield much sugar. 
These experiments were continued again later; the 
roots obtained from buds were planted as mothers; 
most of them failed to produce seed, certain diseases 
and insects being contended with. Other experiments 
from buds were most satisfactory. 

Grafting Method. 

It is claimed that by the Wohanka method 
of selection, by which beet buds are grafted on 
beets, there need never be the slightest danger 
of atavism, as all descendants come from a common 
parent. The advantage of the grafting method is, that 



PRODUCTION OF SUPERIOR SEED. 217 

seeds may be obtained in one year instead of two, as 
by the early bud methods; furthermore, it is maintained 
that there is a sort of refreshing influence of the beet 
sap. Two varieties of beets have been created; these 
are known as, first, rich in sugar (W. Z. R.); second, 
rich in yield and sugar (W. E. R.). 

Experiments upon 10,000 beets, during 1896, were 
to determine just what this Briem grafting meant. 
Some of the beets were from seed obtained in the ordi- 
nary way; others were the bud-grafted seed. Those 
beets from the regular seed gave 53 per cent, as rich 
in sugar and general characteristics as the parent beet; 
15 per cent, of a superior quality, and 32 per cent, of an 
inferior quality. On the other hand, the grafted beet 
seeds gave Jj per cent, equal in quality to the parent; 
17 per cent. of a superior quality, and only 6 per cent, of 
an inferior quality. It is remarked that these results are 
not only superior, but that they are much more rapid. 
It is evident that great experience and observation are 
necessary to carry this out; the Wohanka work has 
now been going on for six years. It is to be noted 
that the main difference between the new and old 
method is, that by customary selections, the individual 
characteristics are the first arrived at, and beyond 
which there is no control, no way of preventing analyt- 
ical errors or action of atavism. On the other hand, 
the bud method is the starting point, after which ata- 
vism has no influence upon the descendants, as they all 
come from the same mother and must necessarily have 
the same characteristics. The advantage of grafting 
is, that seeds are obtained the same year, while by the 
bud method, % when used alone, the seeds can be 
obtained only the second year. There is a "renewing 
of the blood" by grafting. Such is a general outline 
of what is claimed by this well-known seed producer. 
Beets from Leaves and Adhering Skin. 

The efforts to produce beet seed without going 
through the regular methods has led H. Briem to make 



218 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 



a series of experiments, by planting beet leaves with 
a small piece of adhering skin from the mother beet. 
The first question to be looked into, is that of planting, 
as early as possible, very superior seed on a selected 
and well prepared soil. When the leaves of the result- 




Fig. 67. 
Leaves with adhering skin. 



Fig. 68. 
Final appearance of root. 



ing beets have attained three to four inches in length, 
they are cut off with a very short knife; the separation 
should be made in such a way that there will be adher- 
ing a small piece of skin, as shown in Fig. 67. The 
planting is not done until next day; after a reasonable 



PRODUCTION OF SUPERIOR SEED. 



219 



number of weeks (two and a half months), the appear- 
ance will be as shown in Fig. 69. 

It is important to note that the leaves used should 
have a certain stiffness, and be entirely grown and no 
longer possessing their youthful vigor. While a certain 
amount of water is necessary, this should not be pushed 
to excess. During very sunny or hot weather it is 




Fig. 69. 
Root formed from leaf with skin after two and a half months. 

generally found desirable to cover the growing leaf 
with other leaves. After two and a half months the 
transplanting should be done to the regular field; after 
the growing has continued for a few months longer, 
the appearance of the root is shown in Fig. 68. Though 
we consider it very doubtful if any special results could 
possibly be obtained by this method, it is interesting 






220 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

as being or forming an important departure from reg- 
ular methods. 

Beets from Sectional Vertical Slices. 

A new departure has recently been made, which is, 
that instead of using the bud root for seed, the beet is 
sliced vertically, and each slice planted separately. 
These will yield seed, as do so many separate mothers, 
as many as twenty new seed-forming centres being 
thus obtained from one beet root. It must not be for- 
gotten that these slices must undergo considerable 
special attention in a greenhouse before being planted 
in the open field. It is important to dress the wound 
with an antiseptic of some kind, or with wood charcoal 
powder, or even chloride of mercury may give satis- 
factory results. This precaution does not appear nec- 
essary when the vertical sections are limited to four; 
then the planting should be just as is customary for 
mothers in seed production, the distance between rows 
being rather closer. These slices must, in some way, 
be held up in a vertical position, otherwise the wind 
would blow them over. 



CHAPTER XI. 

Home-Grown Beet Seed. 

Of late, special sugar journals have recommended 
that we produce all the beet seed needed for home 
consumption. In theory it is a capital idea, but in 
practice most difficult to carry out. No one writer 
more than this author has urged and maintained the 
theory that special seed should be grown for special 
environments. It was, furthermore, argued, that if it 
were possible to devote special money to the practical 
working of the suggestion, it would, in time, be found 
very remunerative; and the complicated mother selec- 
tion might be worked on a scale which would be to the 
advantage of all interested. Many instances could be 
given of special beet seed retaining the names of fac- 
tories where this local seed cultivation has met with 
success, and without borrowing instances from Ger- 
many or France; the Alvarado achievement in this 
direction is an important example to the point. 

Just whether the best results that could be obtained 
have as yet been reached, either in California by private 
parties, or under Government supervision at experi- 
ment stations, remains to be proven. Every one 
who has looked into the subject of beet cultivation, 
knows that by proper selection excellent seed may be 
obtained. It would certainly be possible to produce 
in the United States all the beet seed needed for exist- 
ing factories. If such a course be followed, it would 
at present be ruinous to the American beet-sugar 
industry, unless undertaken by or under control of the 
factory. Those who discuss the problem have fre- 
quently only a very limited knowledge of it. A visit 

221 



222 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

to a European beet farm would make the question very 
much clearer in their minds. 

The scientific selection of mothers demands, as 
has been shown in previous pages, a very complete 
laboratory installation, a chemist and several assist- 
ants. It means this one question and very little else: 
To use a soil that happens to be within easy reach, 
and cultivate beets upon it; then to make selections 
of these beets, with the view to seed production, 
regardless of fertilizer and numerous other requisites. 
This would, after a term of years, end in obtaining a 
race of beets very inferior to the mothers representing 
the original parent. The money outlay for a beet-seed 
farm under these conditions would be a losing opera- 
tion, in view of the limited number of factories in the 
country. Later on, when the industry is more 
advanced than at present, when at least fifty factories 
shall exist, some enterprising seed specialist should 
take the matter in hand; but not until then. 

It has been argued by some writers, that if the 
beet-manufacturing countries of Europe should refuse 
to furnish us with beet seed, our factories must cease 
working. This would require a joint action on the 
part of Austria, France, Germany and Russia; and for 
what purpose? To prevent enterprising Americans 
making their few pounds' of beet sugar, which, up to 
the present, has absolutely no effect upon the world's 
sugar market ! Every country of Europe is interested 
in developing the beet-sugar industry in the United 
States, with the hope that it may create a demand for 
their sugar machinery; and no better method can be 
adopted to attain this end than by sending us all the 
beet seed we may need for years to come. Hence, there 
need be no apprehensions on that point. 

American Experiments in Beet-Seed Production. 

Of the interesting American experiments in the 
production of beet seed, mention must be made of those 



HOME-GROWN BEET SEED. 223 

at Schuyler, Neb., which station was established with 
the view of improving the quality of beets, etc. The 
physical selection from roots was obtained from a 
standard variety of seed; the beets were divided into 
three classes: 1st, those of not less than 12 per cent, 
and not more than 15 per cent.; 2d, those from 15 to 18 
per cent., and 3rd, the Elite class, those containing 
over 18 per cent. 

As a result of the analysis, 5091 beets were 
accepted for the production of seed and n 79 were 
rejected. (Certain changes occurred during siloing 
with Vilmorin's Improved, there being apparently an 
increase of 0.1 in sugar percentage ! With Desprez 
and Klein- Wanzleben, there had been no change.) The 
roots selected were put in the ground, which had been 
properly prepared. Great care was taken to keep the 
higher grades at a considerable distance from the oth- 
ers, so as to prevent contamination by the distribution 
of pollen from one plant to another. 

The weather being very dry and the temperature 
high, the seed matured rather earlier than was 
expected, the quantity and yield being thus reduced. 
In 1892, also, experiments were made; the calcu- 
lated yield of seed to the acre was 968 lbs. On the other 
hand, the yield of 1893 was smaller, it being 863 lbs. On 
account of the high quality of the seed, it was sold to 
the Oxnard Beet Sugar Company at a price far in 
excess of that paid for the best imported seed. The 
sum received for the seed was at the rate of $172.60 an 
acre; this was only for the low grade, the high grade 
being kept for the experimental work of the future. 
Owing to the limited area devoted to the experiments, 
no exact data could possibly be obtained as to its cost 
of production. Seeds worth $150 an acre can be pro- 
duced in America. This is the issue upon which the 
Department of Agriculture places special stress. 

Dr. Wiley, in a recent Bulletin, No. 52, discussing 



224 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

the experiments we have just referred to, says: 
" In the experiments conducted at the station at 
Schuyler during the season of 1893, a comparison of 
the beets grown from domestic and imported seeds was 
made. The plants from the native-grown seed seemed 
to have a higher vitality and to be better suited to the 
climatic conditions of the locality than those grown 
from imported seeds. They showed during the growing 
season a more abundant foliage and a better develop- 
ment of roots. This higher vitality and quality of the 
beets grown from domestic seed illustrate in a forcible 
degree the advisability of the production of our beet 
seed at home. Even granting that seeds produced in 
foreign countries have the same high qualities, it must 
be admitted that their vitality is in danger of being 
very much diminished during shipment to this country. 
The moist air of the holds of the ships in which they 
are transported often produces moldiness and incipient 
germination, which tend to greatly diminish their 
value. Not only did the beets produced from the 
home-grown seed have a higher percentage of sugar, 
but they also afforded a higher yield per acre, 
as determined in the experiments at Schuyler. The 
mean tonnage per acre from the home-grown seed was 
21. 1 and from the imported seed 17.9. The mean 
pounds of sugar produced per acre from the home- 
grown seed was 5891 and from the imported seed 5185. 
This shows an increase of about 12 per cent, in the 
actual quantity of sugar per acre when domestic seed 
was used. These data should be carefully studied by 
all those who are interested in the production of the 
beet sugar in this country." 

A fact apparently overlooked is, that scientific 
experiments have proven that the germinating quality 
of seed is hastened by change of climate. We refer 
not so much to the seed itself, but to the seed outcome 
of mothers from the imported product. So what appar- 



HOME-GROWN BEET SEED. 225 

■ently is a higher vitality is the natural outcome of an 
established principle; the rule, in all probability, would 
work both ways. Several establishments in France 
change about in growing their seed; for example, Carl- 
ier regenerates his seed in Masloffka, Russia, and, as a 
result, he claims that the germinating power is so much 
increased that the seed sown upon the same soil, and 
under the same conditions, will appear above ground 
five days before the indigenous production. That the 
yield per acre was higher, that the sugar percentage 
was higher, may also be explained by a longer vegeta- 
tion and stimulation, produced by the new environ- 
ment. The Schuyler experiment station was abolished 
and all remained in statu quo. The Elite roots could 
not, after the many years' interval, be further watched 
and developed. 

By a new decision of the Secretary of Agriculture, 
it is decided to continue the work abandoned five years 
ago. This means that all must be commenced over 
again. Whatever progress is made, whatever work is 
accomplished, there remains ahead the possible sup- 
pression of the work, by a change of administration. 
The researches at the Nebraska station, if they 
had continued, would possibly apply to Dakota, Iowa 
and Minnesota. On the other hand, the elevated 
plateaus of the arid regions of Utah, Colorado, Nevada, 
Montana, New Mexico and Arizona offer condi- 
tions entirely different, and a second station should, 
exist for those regions. 

Furthermore, a third station is needed on the 
southern coast valley of California; a fourth station, to 
study the climatic and other conditions of northern 
New York, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and southern Wis- 
consin, including Michigan. These stations should 
not have annual appropriations, but a fixed sum, deter- 
mined in advance, as this capital would then be beyond 
the possibility of political intrigues at Washington. 

15 



226 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

The only solution would be for those states most inter- 
ested to come forward and appropriate the required 
amount. A fact also that must be thoroughly looked 
into, if one or more of these stations be established, 
and from them serious work is to be expected, is: That 
the chemist in charge of each particular station be not 
a novice, as is often the case, in the special work he 
has to do. Let him spend a year or more at Halle sur 
Salle, Germany; then another year at one of the French 
stations; let him bring over with him one or two prac- 
tical hands for the physical selection of mothers, men 
who have been employed in this special work for 
twenty years or more; otherwise, great injustice will 
be done to the head chemist at Washington, who is 
responsible for the whole work. It must be understood 
that nothing of any great importance in the way of 
sugar-beet types can be accomplished under seven or 
eight years. It took over twenty years to put the 
standards as now used in Europe on the solid basis 
they now are. 

The extended correspondence we have had with 
numerous experiment stations reveals very little. At 
Cornell University, many experiments are under way: 
nothing yet is decided. Iowa Agricultural College has 
some experiments in the production of beet seed in' 
progress, " but the investigations are not yet far enough 
advanced to enable us to make a report." At the fac- 
tories in Alameda, they declare that they produced 
seed for many years (in 1893, 10 tons; 1894, 20; and 
1895, 15 tons; about half of which they used), but one 
fact remains, namely: It is far cheaper to purchase the 
product in Europe than to attempt one's own selection. 
At Watsonville, they declare that their experiments are 
too recent to be worth publishing. The Pecos valley 
sugar factory argues very much in the same way. 

From Mr. Oxnard, we learn that they carried on 
sugar-beet-seed production in Nebraska for a period of 



HOME-GROWN BEET SEED. 227 

years; the yield per acre did not prove profitable; they 
obtained about 15 tons, which cost about twice as 
much as the same seed could have been imported for. 
The climate around Grand Island appears to be too 
windy for beet seed. We have great doubts that 
the difficulty can be overcome by planting rows of corn 
between the beet rows, as suggested; for the mothers in 
growing need all the plant food the soil can furnish, 
and even at distances of three feet the roots are all in 
communication, one with the other. To introduce 
corn would complicate matters, and certainly not for 
the better. 

Utah Beet Seed Selection. 

In reply to our letter, Mr. C. A. Grager, Superin- 
tendent of the Utah Sugar Company, sends us the fol- 
lowing satisfactory account of their methods of selec- 
tion. There are certain original features about the 
way the work is conducted, which are well worth 
recording. Here, again, too much importance must 
not be placed as yet upon the early germinating char- 
acteristics, for reasons which w r e explained when 
reviewing, in the foregoing, the Schuyler, Neb., 
experiments. 

" We consider that good seed is the first essential 
toward the success of a beet-sugar plant. Good seed 
or poor seed may mean the difference between success 
and failure. It has not been our effort to produce a 
cheaper article than the imported, but to grow as good 
a seed in all respects, and better in some, than the best 
imported seed; and in this we feel that we have been 
thoroughly successful. The sugar content and purity 
of the beets grown from our own seed have never 
fallen below that of the beets from our very best 
imported seed; and in germination, which we consider 
a very important point, our seed is the quicker by from 
two to four days, produces a stronger germ, gives from 



228 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

5 to 6 per cent, more plants, and about fifty more 
germs per ioo seeds. 

" Our mothers, or seed beets, are carefully selected 
from special fields of beets, grown for the purpose from 
the best imported seed. At harvest time, each beet is 
first carefully inspected by hand with a view to having 
all of uniform size, symmetrical in form or shape, and 
free from disease or injury. Of the beets thus exam- 
ined, only about 5 to 8 per cent, will pass the test and 
are taken to the laboratories, where a small cylindrical 
sample is taken from each one and its specific gravity 
tested ; this gives an approximate idea of its sugar con- 
tent. All those not reaching a certain standard are 
discarded, or thrown away, while the few chosen ones 
are very carefully packed away by hand in dry sand. 
They are kept from heating or freezing during the 
winter by a system of ventilation, and are taken out of 
the sand in the spring, apparently as firm, fresh and 
crisp as when laid away in the fall. 

" As planting time approaches, in the spring of 
the year, the piles of mother beets are opened and the 
actual and definite, test of their sugar qualities is made 
by taking out a second sample diagonally through the 
centre of the beet and a direct polarization made of it. 
All beets showing less than i6J per cent, of sugar 
are rejected; those going above are planted for seed. 
Out of all that are thus polarized, about 25 per cent, go 
below the requirement of 16J per cent, sugar; the 
average of those retained for seed reaching for the 
past season 18.7 per cent, sugar and 86 purity. 

" The preparation of the soil for the mother beets 
is commenced in the fall, when it is plowed very deep; 
in the spring it is replowed, but shallow this time, and 
the surface made smooth and firm. The beets are 
then planted by hand in rows three feet apart and at a 
distance of three feet from beet to beet in the row, thus 
allowing cultivation in every direction. The several 



HOME-GHOWN BEET SEED. 229 

seed branches or stalks from one beet do not all ripen 
at the same time, consequently cannot all be harvested 
at once. This necessitates going through the field and 
cutting by hand all ripe seed stalks, which are care- 
fully laid away and allowed to ' season ' in the shade 
and are afterward threshed. It requires a second and 
third cutting before all the seed is gathered. After 
threshing, the seed is passed through a special machine, 
which removes all bits of dirt, sticks and blighted 
seeds, leaving only the full plump seed to be sacked 
for use. 

"The germination is carefully tested early in the 
spring, before any seeding is done, by planting in a 
hothouse several lots of ioo seeds that are taken with- 
out any selection whatever and represent an average of 
the whole. A careful watch is kept of the process of 
germination and a full record made of the date or the 
appearance of the first plant or plants, the number 
appearing each succeeding day up to and including the 
twelfth day from date of planting, and finally, the total 
number of germs resulting from each ioo seeds. The 
average germination of Lehi seeds for the past season 
was 96 per cent, with 218 germs, over two germs or 
plants for each seed. Such seeds can be safely guar- 
anteed on going into the hands of beet growers. Any 
haphazard or unscientific methods in the production of 
seed would immediately be followed by disastrous 
results, for high-bred plant life, like 'high-bred' animal 
life, will degenerate very rapidly unless preserved with 
intelligence and skill." 

This last assertion is very true, and the future suc- 
cess of the Utah beet selection will depend upon these 
very facts, as previously mentioned. The whole issue 
may appear very promising for a few years, but when 
once atavism asserts itself, the first warning that some 
thing must be done is reached. Sugar-beet-seed selec- 
tion depends upon many very difficult problems, and 



230 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

I 

some of these are fully explained in previous pages of 
this writing. 

We were recommended to write to Mr. Deering- 
hoff regarding his experience in sugar-beet-seed pro- 
duction. In reply, we learn that in his district, Union- 
town, Washington, the soil is too dry, at certain sea- 
sons, for the satisfactory development of beet seed. 
The quality of seed obtained was, in a measure, satis- 
factory, but the yields were far below what they should 
have been. It is claimed, furthermore, that it is far 
more difficult to keep the beets over winter than it is 
in Continental Europe. He has no faith in California 
as a state that has a great future for superior seed cul- 
tivation. He declares that in a few years, they would 
possibly produce annuals; this, from our standpoint, is 
good reasoning. The intention, however, of C. C. 
Morse & Co., in California, is to give the subject of 
special seed production their careful attention. They 
have been urged to take up the question by several of 
the leading agronomists of the state. 

The very low price at which foreign seeds may be 
brought to America is an issue difficult to overcome. 
The success of Russian seeds in France and Germany, 
the importance of producing seed in a colder climate, 
and bringing it finally to a milder one, have been for 
years most successful. It remains to be proven what the 
future will be in creating a type of beet in an environ- 
ment such as California. The experiments of the past, 
either at Alvarado, or in other centres of the state, are 
not sufficiently conclusive, owing to their limited dura- 
tion, to predict as a certainty what the outcome will be. 
However, we do not hesitate to make the assertion 
that there will be an enormous tendency to create an- 
nuals. No district of Europe has given more atten- 
tion to beet-seed production than Saxony, so we 
conclude that a general outline of what is done there, 
as a starting point, is most important as a guide for 



HOME-GROWN BEET SEED. 231 

those who have the beet-seed cultivation specialty 
in view. 

Saxony Methods for Field Testing of Beet Seed. 

The main object is to study the different varieties 
of seeds from local and foreign sources, and to deter- 
mine the most desirable soil and fertilizer for each case, 
allowance being made for any climatic influence that 
might be contended with during the progress of the 
experiment. It must be understood that such experi- 
ments are not necessarily conducted at the experiment 
station; but on various farms at considerable distances 
from one another. The selection of seed is made by 
an official, sent to the seed grower's farm; that the 
sample may be an average one in each case, it is taken 
from a volume of seeds weighing i^ tons. The sam- 
ples are sealed in sacks by the expert and forwarded 
to the agronomic laboratory, where germinating tests 
are made, after which they are distributed among farm- 
ers, who offer their services for such experiments. 
Under all circumstances, the tiller must have no spe- 
cial seed of his own, nor in any way be informed of the 
origin of the seed he is to plant. 

The area of land devoted in each case to such 
experiments is about one-half an acre. When the har- 
vesting season comes, the beets to be tested are 
marked, counting the hundredth beet from the first 
row, then the second hundredth, etc. As in the parcel 
there are about 23,000 individual roots, this gives 230 
roots for laboratory observation. These are classified 
according to size, shape, etc., and then arranged in 
series; every other one is taken, so that there remain 
115 roots leaving the farm, to be shipped in special 
bags to the agricultural station, where the number is 
again reduced by one-half. The laboratory experiments 
give the percentage of sugar in the beet and juice, 
the dry extract of the juice, purity coefficient and sub- 



232 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 



stances other than sugar. The Keil and Dolle rasp is 
used to obtain an average pulp from the sixty beets. 
This pulp is collected in a special receptacle and thor- 
oughly mixed; one-half of it is taken and submitted 
to a pressure of 300 atmospheres, so as to extract the 
juice. From one quarter of the half of the remaining 
pulp 500 to 700 grams are taken, which are used as 
final samples. 

The alcohol-digestion method is used to determine 
the sugar percentage. For this purpose, the alcohol 
used tests about 90 to 92 per cent; at least half an hour 
is needed before it has penetrated the pulp. The 
polariscope observations follow. A Brix hydrometer 
gives the solids, and the apparent purity coefficient i.« 
obtained by dividing the sugar percentage by the total 
solids; the non-sugar is the result of a subtraction of 
the sugar percentage from the Brix indicator. A series 
of tables is filled out for germination, the arrangement 
being as follows: 



v 



DO 


a. A 




§>» 





~ S 




H M . 


EQ 


cc s 




-c « 







w. 


5 O CB 


e 






03 , .J 
fc£* to 


g 


■sS 




C Z-2 


+a 




1--3 


BO 

O 


c m 




£ "-QQ 











Number of 

Sprouts per 100 

Seeds After 



Days. 



14 Days 



u s 

fi = « 5°2 

> S rt iM 



The general classification of varieties, according to their saccha- 
rine quality, is done in a table about as follows : 



i * 


. "- 1 




0- 




"S *= w 


40 




w 


? SB » 


(1 


1»a 


eJ 


k 


«J 



III 









1 




;j 






fcfi ' 


w 


£ a; 


g".c 


CJ 


±3 


d5 


T -3 






s 


IziPh 


<dPm 


— 




s 









HOME-GROWN BEET SEED. 233 

When the factory is to determine what variety of 
seed is best suited for the environment, the method is 
a little different. Great precautions are necessary, 
that the experiments be conducted under exactly the 
same conditions as regards soil, fertilizer, etc. The 
spacing of roots must be identical in all cases; the soil 
should have been well plowed the season before; sow- 
ing of all varieties of seed under observation, and the 
analyses of the resulting roots must be done on the 
same day. During the plant development the various 
patches of beets should be carefully examined, so as to 
make sure that their appearance above ground is about 
the same in each case; it is also urgent to keep the soil 
free from weeds. Each beet must be weighed and 
analyzed separately, and it is important not to have one 
sample of each, but an entire row taken from the same 
exposure from each patch. 

When undertaking the production of seed, it is not 
generally realized what a long, tedious affair the 
method is, and if not conducted on a scientific basis, it 
will be a money loss to all concerned. After the selec- 
tions are made there are three principal classifications. 
The first on the list should be planted to produce seed 
which would yield beets for selection the following 
year; the second classification could also be used for 
the same purpose in an emergency; those remaining 
could furnish at once a limited amount of seed for gen- 
eral farmers' usage, while the main supply would be 
obtained a year later from beets which had undergone 
only an ultimate physical classification. For example, 
the mothers selected in 1894 would be from seed which 
had been produced in 1893. The planting of mothers, 
in Europe, is done the following March, 1895; in Octo- 
ber of 1895 the seeds from the planted mothers would 
be harvested; in April, 1896, the seeds are sown, and 
in October of the same year the resulting roots are har- 
vested and siloed. In February, 1897, a second selec- 



234 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

tion and classification of mothers, March planting. 
October harvesting of seed; April, 1898, sowing of 
seed, and in October, beets are harvested and sent to 
the factory. So nearly four years elapse before the 
manufacturer gets the full benefit of his efforts. Under 
these circumstances, satisfactory results would evi- 
dently be obtained, but the expense is an important 
point to be considered. 

In our pamphlet published some time ago, we 
made the following calculation: If 20 lbs. of seed are 
used per acre, there would be needed, on an average, 
35 mothers to produce this seed. A factory working 
30,000 tons of beets must have under control not less 
than 3000 acres, and the seed needed would be 60,000 
lbs. To obtain this, 105,000 mothers would be 
required. If the method of selection is that adopted 
by M. Legras, at first not more than one beet in three 
could be used, so that the number of analyses would 
be 315,000. If we admit that each analysis costs one 
cent, the total cost for this work in the laboratory, 
without considering wear and tear on plant, would be 
$3150 per annum. To obtain seed from the 105,000 
mothers, at least 30 acres, at 4000 roots per acre, 
planted at three feet in all directions, would be required, 
and such beets could not be properly looked after 
under $60.00 an acre, or $1800. The allowance of one 
cent for actual cost is entirely too low; it would in 
reality be double that amount, bringing the cost of such 
analyses up to $6300, and a total cost of the experi- 
ments at $12,450, which might be a slight saving on 
the market price of seed. However, we are convinced 
that there would be considerable money loss to the 
manufacturer if conducted on the lines that the actual 
conditions of science demand. On the other hand, if 
the question of seed production be gradually developed 
by factories that have the patience, success would, in 
time, follow. If the ordinary method of selection be 



HOME-GROWN BEET SEED. 235 

adopted, then the chemical analysis is made only every 
two years, and seed could be obtained at about eight 
cents per pound, or less. 

Any enterprising chemist attempting this work, 
however, would find, after a few years of enormous 
expenditure of energy, that there would be certain dis- 
appointments. Complete laboratories with this idea in 
view require considerable capital. We must in time 
create an American variety of beet seed, but has that 
time yet arrived ? If it has, let the work be done by 
a person who has in view only the specialty of seed 
production, and not by general seed dealers, who com- 
bine the question with other branches of their trade.* 
One who, furthermore, has the technical knowl- 
edge for the work to be done, which demands a 
thorough grounding, not only in the principles of 
botany, but also in the use of the microscope. 
Much remains to be discovered from a botanical stand- 
point; and laboratories where botany is a basis of their 
selection, will, in time, take the lead. As matters now 
stand, most of the ten or more leading beet-seed pro- 
ducers of Europe have vegetable organic development 
and changes under constant notice; so much so, that in 
connection with their laboratories are works of Dar- 
win and other leading investigators of plant life and 
requirements. 

For creating a special type of beet, a certain 
number of years is necessary, as before explained, 
but the thoroughness of the subject is a lifelong 
study. From what we have just said, it stands to rea- 
son that many of the newly created varieties from 



♦Since the above was written, a well organized beet-seed selecting 
laboratory lias come under our notice, where last year there were 
made 337,389 analyses in fortv-one days, or an average of 8227 analyses 
per diem. Bv the use of two polariscopes, the cost for actual labor 
was $576, appliances, etc., $503, or a total of $1079, to which must be 
added the interest, wear and tear, etc., of $700 cost of plant. There 
were 263,567 beets kept for mothers, and the cost of the selection is 
about one-half cent per beet kept. This means more than half the 
help are women, at fifteen cents a day. 



236 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

growers who have been in the business but a few years 
are not to the advantage of the manufacturer, and sim- 
ply mislead the public in general. For such beets, 
when planted, will show great variations, not only in 
their sugar percentage, but also in size, even upon the 
same soil, under the same climatic conditions and the 
same care for their cultivation. Such conditions would 
not exist with the Vilmorin, Legras, Wanzleben and 
Knauer, for example. 

Vilmorin, on the one hand, and Klein- Wanzleben, 
on the other, have more reasons to complain of the 
infringement on their prerogative than any other beet- 
seed creators. They have added originals to their 
tvpes, which make an important mark of distinction. 
There are possibly thirty very serious specialists who 
have taken the beets of these two promoters as a start- 
ing point in their selection, and have created not only 
what are excellent varieties, but very important depar- 
tures from -the old routine. 



CHAPTER XII. 



Beet Seed Production in France. 

A very strange fact relating to the statistical data 
of such an important question as beet seed in Europe, 
is that there has been little or nothing published. It is 
estimated, however, that the consumption of beet seed 
reaches 35,000 tons, produced in France, Germany, 
Russia and Austria. There is considerable export of 
German seed to France, and France sends to Germany, 
and elsewhere. Russia of late years has brought about 
some changes in the German export, which once was 
3500 tons. In France, there are 200,000 to 230,000 
hectares (500,000 to 600,000 acres) devoted to sugar- 
beet cultivation; there is needed for this at least 6000 
tons of beet seed (13,440,000 lbs.), to produce which 
demands an area of 2200 hectares (5500 acres), which 
would represent 1 per cent, of lands devoted to beets 
cultivated for the sugar factories. 

The exports and imports of beet seed to and from 
France during several years, are as follows: 



Years. 


Imported from Ge 
Russia, etc. 


rniany, 


Exported. 






1887 


1,491 tons. 




971 tons. 






1888 


1,685 


(i 




1,142 " 






1889 


1,523 


(< 




1,453 " 






1890 


1,847 


H 




1,716 






*891 


9 






? 






1892 


1,373 


II 




2.203 " 






1893 


2,647 


<< 




2,631 " 






1894 


2,053 


(i 




2.355 • 






1895 


2,896 


f« 




1,202 " 





The French growers were thus protected by a duty 
of a fraction less than three cents per pound, but this 
has been found to be too small, and the low duty has 
since been changed. Before 1884 there were no seeds 

237 



238 



SUGAR BEET SEED. 



imported, as there was no encouragement to cultivate 
superior beets. The roots then contained 7 to 9 per 
cent, sugar, but in 1885-86, the percentage was 9.2 to 
1 1.2 and is now 13.3 to 15. Up to 1884 the French 
producers had, in a large measure, been neglecting 
their methods of selection. When it was necessary to 
resume their position held in the past, whole districts 
were abandoned, owing to the influence of hybrids that 
were freely cultivated. The growers have now regained 
the ground lost in the production of superior seed, but 
one fact still remains, the importation continues. The 
districts near Lille and Valenciennes, as early as 1846 
(the fertile plains of Cysoing and Pont a Marcq), were 
devoted to beets; now about 5000 acres are employed 
for special sugar-beet-seed production. 

Old Beet Seed and Wastes Utilization. 



As the demand for seed some years was not equal 
to the supply, the European grower had in stock a 
quantity of seed that he could not dispose of unless it 
was by mixing, and thus cheat his customers, This 
would not be of so frequent occurrence if some means 
could be proposed for the utilization of old seed. The 
most practical suggestion is to feed it to cattle, which 
has been done on many farms, and has met with con- 
siderable success. 

Pagnoul gives the comparative analyses of hay 
and beet seed as follows: 



Water 

Amylaceous substances 
Nitrogenous " 

Non-nitrogenous " 
Fatty " 

Extractive " 

Raw cellulose 

Ash 

Phosphoric Acid 




Old Beet Seed. 



12.60 

21.54 

9.19 

2.19 

5.88 

11.54 

28.70 

8.36 

100.00 

0.84 



BEET SEED PRODUCTION IX FRANCE. 



239 



By the way of comparison, it is interesting to give 
Pellet's analyses of old beet seed: 

Water 14.14 

Fattv substances 4.26 

Starch 1.56 

Cellulose 16.31 

Albuminoids 11.94 

Mineral substances 6.94 

Cortical substances 45.30 

Total 100.00 

Mr. Petermann, who has also given the question 
of seed utilization some thought, says that it makes 
very little difference if the seed be of a superior or 
inferior grade. 



Water 

Fatty substances. . . . 
Raw albuminoids. . . 

Carbohydrates 

Cellulose 

Mineral substances. 



Containing pure albuminoids. . 

" potassa 

" phosphoric acid 







Variety. 






Klein 


-Wanzh 

5.69 

5.96 

10.19 

30.64 

38.75 

8.77 


iben. 


Yellow Man 


golds. 






9.70 
5.72 
9.86 
33.58 
33.12 
8.02 






100.00 


100.00 






9.95 
1.65 
0.67 






9.44 
1.43 

0.72 





It must be noted that the fatty substances in hay 
are only 2.44, and in beet seed they vary between 4.26 
and 5.96, or 5.88 in old seed. The same difference 
exists for nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous substances. 
In France, excellent results have been obtained by 
feeding seven pounds old seed flour combined with 
100 ^170 lbs. beet pulp, and two pounds hay per 
diem; beeves thus fed increased in weight about 90 lbs. 
a month. Very encouraging results have also been 
obtained by forming with old seed a ration for hogs. 

It must, however, be noted that certain precau- 
tionary measures are necessary; the animals must 
become gradually accustomed to the stuff; hence, the 
ration should at first be only one-fourth of what it is 
to be finally. In the same line of argument, the 
wastes or residuum, after cleaning beet seed, have 



240 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

an important utilization in cattle feeding. Accord- 
ing to Besler, the average composition of these 
wastes is: 

Water 12.12 

Albumen 11.06 

Fatty substances 3.80 

Cellulose 23.33 

Ash 26.58 

Is on-nitrogenous extractive substances 23.14 

100.00 

It is found desirable to form a mixture of this 
product with other residuum from beet-sugar facto- 
ries; or, with oat straw, for sheep it has rendered excel- 
lent service. It is estimated that fodder of this kind is 
worth seventy-five cents per ioo lbs. 

Conditions of Beet-Seed Purchase in Different 

Countries. 

The revised law of Germany, 1896: 

(1) One kilo of seed should give, after fourteen 
days, at least 70,000 sprouts. 

(2) Of these total 70,000 sprouts, at least 46,000 
should be visible in six days. 

(3) For 100 seeds at least seventy-five should show 
signs of germination. 

(4) Fourteen per cent, moisture is considered nor- 
mal; 14 to 17 per cent, moisture may be delivered, but 
allowance must be made for the weight of water. 

(5) Three per cent, may be allowed for foreign 
substances; seed may be delivered containing 5 per 
cent, moisture, but allowance must be made for this 
extra weight. 

If even one of these five conditions is not complied 
with, the seed may be refused. If there is a difference 
in the analyses of interested parties, an average is taken 
between the results obtained by a new analysis and 
another made at the laboratories of the Sugar Manu- 
facturers' Society. 

In Austria, some few modifications have been 
made: 



BEET SEED PRODUCTION IN FRANCE. 241 

(i) The impurities (leaves, stems, stones, etc.) 
must not be more than 3 per cent. 

(2) Moisture not over 18 per cent. 

(3) One hundred seeds should give in six days 
125 sprouts. 

(4) After twelve days, with gradual heating, 100 
seeds should give at least 150 strong and healthy 
germs. 

(5) Of 100 seeds, at least eighty should germinate. 

(6) One kilo of seeds should give 70,000 sprouts. 
Seeds may be refused if they contain more than 4 per 
cent, impurities, and more than 17 per cent, moisture; 
and if 100 seeds, after the two days, contain less than 
140 sprouts, or if with normal moisture one kilo of 
seeds gives less than 68,800 sprouts, and if 100 seeds 
yield less than 76 seeds which sprouted. 

Example of Calculations of the Juice of Seed. 

If we suppose the seeds had been sold for eight 
cents per pound and that these seeds contain 4 per 
cent, impurities, 15 per cent, moisture, and that 100 
seeds gave 140 sprouts, and that one pound gave 
31,000 sprouts, and 76 seeds of 100 have sprouted: 



For impurities 8x96 

~97 

For germination 7.9x140 _ 

T50~ 

Sprouts total 7.9x31.000 

3L800 

Per 100 seeds 7.9x76 



7.9 cents. 
97 



= 7.38 cents. 
150 



7.7 cents. 
31.800 



= 7.38 

80 

An average is taken 7.38-K.7+7.38 = 74g which 

3 
price at which seeds would be purchased per pound. 

Bohemia. — The seeds should contain 3 per cent. 

impurities, and a maximum of 15 per cent, moisture; 

of 100 seeds, seventy at least should germinate after six 

days and eighty in less than fourteen days. From 100 

16 



242 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

seeds in six days, at least ninety-five germs should be 
obtained, and in fourteen days not less than 150 germs. 
Seeds may be refused if surrounded with mildew, or if 
containing more than 18 per cent, moisture and more 
than 4 per cent, impurities; if, under germinating 
test, 100 seeds give less than eighty-eight sprouts in 
six days and less than 140 sprouts in fourteen days, 
and if from 100 seeds there are less than sixty-five 
sprouts in six days and less than seventy-six in 
fourteen days. 

Gratification. — If seeds contain from 3 to 4 per 
cent, impurities, the price undergoes some changes; 
this is also true if the moisture percentage is between 
15 and 18. If 100 seeds give eighty-eight to ninety- 
five germs in six days, the weight of the seeds is 
reduced 0.33 per cent, for each germ less than ninety- 
five. If 100 seeds give within fourteen days 140 to 
150 sprouts, a deduction of weight of 0.66 per cent, per 
germ less than 150. 

If there are only sixty-five to seventy seeds in 100 
that germinate in six days, 0.5 per cent, is deducted for 
each seed not germinated below seventy. If there are 
seventy-six to eighty seeds in 100 that germinate with- 
in the period of fourteen days, 1 per cent, of the weight 
for each seed not germinated below eighty will be 
deducted. In Bohemia, the testing of seed is generally 
made by two chemists, or in laboratories of experiment 
controlling stations. If the analyses show a difference 
which is not greater than 1 per cent, in the impurities, 
1 per cent, of moisture, six sprouted seeds and twenty 
germs, the average is taken of the two analyses. Other- 
wise a third chemist is selected. 

Those purchasing inform the seller by telegram or 
registered letter as soon as the seed sent reaches its 
destination; if the seller does not send his representa- 
tive within six days, the buyer alone takes upon him- 
self the question of analysis. Two samples of twenty- 



BEET SEED PRODUCTION IX FRANCE. 



243 



five grams are placed in closed flasks for moisture 
determination; two samples of 500 grams (1.1 lbs.) in 
small bags for other investigations; a sample of five 
kilos for agricultural purposes to determine the variety. 
This experiment is upon an area of ten acres (120 
square yards); the soil is determined upon by both 
interested parties. 

It is interesting to point out the difference in the 
contracts of various countries; there is almost complete 
accord on issues of 3 per cent, impurities. However, 
in Germany and Belgium, up to 5 per cent, impurities 
is allowed, while in Austria over 4 per cent, is not 
admissible. Every country, with the exception of 
Austria, allows that 17 per cent, moisture is a good 
average. Upon general principles, the distinction 
between small and large seed still continues in Bel- 
gium, while everywhere else it has been done away 
with. In Bohemia and Germany, the chemist must 
reside in the country of purchase, while in Belgium, 
and a part of Austria, it is admitted that the chemist 
may reside in the country where the seed is produced. 

Standard. — While in previous pages we have dis- 
cussed what appears to be the important conditions for 
the purchase of superior seed, it is interesting to add 
the following table, which may be considered as stand- 
ard from year to year: 



Kind of Seed. 



Normal 

Superior 

Excellent germination but very 

few seeds per kilo 

Inferior, very poor 

Limited -germination but many 

seeds per kilo 



05 
* 

'E 

3 

a 

a 

3.0 
1.1 


— 1h 

<% 

15.0 
13.2 


Sprouts. 




Seed. 


© 

00 




150 
234 


Per 
: Kilo. 


Dead. 


© c 

20 
3 


In 
1 Kilo. 


70,000 
90,550 


4,160 


0.7 
2.4 


12.7 
12.4 


227 
67 


60,250 
28,475 


6 
55 


1,600 
23,375 


1.3 


1.36 


135 


74,900 


18 


10,000 



In 

1 Kilo. 

38,700 

26.550 
42,500 

55,000 



Varies. — European beet-sugar countries have 
come to certain understandings as to rules and require- 



244 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

ments, among which may be mentioned that the seed 
should be from the last crop. It is admitted that one 
pound of seed contains 23,000 to 31,000 sprouts. Dur- 
ing 1895 the official German and Austrian conditions 
were very much the same as the French. They were 
as follows: 

Vienna. Magdeburg. 

Impurities, maximum 3% 3% 

Moisture 15% 12 to 15% 

100 seeds must, jrive i 7 days 125sprouts. 

iuu seeas must give j 14 dayg 150 sprouls# 150 spr0 uts. 

100 small seeds must give 130 sprouts. 

Lifeless or dead seeds, maximum 20% 

Lifeless or dead seeds { 14 days { J«f « J J Jg 20% 

Sprouts per kilogram (2.2 lbs.) 70,000 50 to 70,000 

It is interesting to note that in Vienna, seed is not 
classed according to size, as in Magdeburg; on the 
other hand, in Vienna the sprouts are counted after 
intervals of seven and fourteen days, while in Magde- 
burg the sprouts are counted after the entire period of 
the test, which lasts two weeks. It is claimed that the 
Vienna standards are very favorable for the purchaser, 
and not for the seller. For example, if we use twenty- 
two pounds of seed to the acre, there should be 700,000 
sprouts. If we suppose that the yield is ten tons and 
each beet weighs a pound, this would be 22,000 beets; 
or 22,000 sprouts, or a very small fraction of the 700,- 
000; this gives a satisfactory margin against insects, etc. 

Calculating Results. 

Upon general principle, the bulletins of seed 
laboratory examinations should be very simple and 
contain : 

Moisture per cent., impurities per cent., seeds per gram beets. 
Number of seeds germinating in seven days ") 

V " " " " fifteen days I ,>„ Prnm 

" " germs " " seven days p...rer ur»m» 

•• " «« " «■ fifteen days J 

Number of seeds germinating in seven days ^ 

11 " •« " " fifteen days I 1rtft e-.a. 

" " germs " " seven davs f iw oeeas. 

«« 4 « •« •< •« fifteen days J 



BEET SEED PRODUCTION" IX FRANCE. 245 

M. Vivien at the Desprez laboratory had a very 
simple way of calculating results. We may take his 
example and admit that ioo kilos of seed contain: 

100 Kilos. 

22.29 kilos large seed corresponding to 1,311,000 seed, 

73.67 " small seed " »« 5,262,000 " 

4.04 impurities 



100.00 

Moisture is found to be 8.75 kilos. 

Average weight per seed J Large seed 0.017 grams. 

° | Small seed 0.014 " 

And that the germination was upon four grams of seed, an average 
sample : 

13.11x4=52 large seed weighing.... 0.89 grams. 
52.02x4=211 small " " ....2.95 " 

Together 3.84 grams without impurities. 

These seeds are placed in germinators { f « of * h , e large seed germinate. 
* \ 182 of the small seed germinate. 

Consequently, in 100 seed 92.3 per cent, of large germinate. 

86.24 " " small " 

• The germination per 100 kilos is { jg .»x92.3=20.57MIos large seed. 

* | 73.67x86.24=63.53 " small '• 

The bulletin then becomes 20.57 kilos large seed germinated. 

63.53 " small " 
11.83 " dead seed. 
4.04 impurities. 

100.00 

Remarks. — If the number of seeds had been con- 
sidered instead of the weight, and if a proportional 
amount of small and large seed had been taken, then 
92.3 X 22.29 + 86.24 X 73 6 7 -r- 95-9 6 = 8 7-65 per 
cent, would have apparently germinated; when, in real- 
ity, this would have been but 84.100 kilos of seed ger- 
minating in 100 kilos, showing again the importance of 
estimating by weight and not by number. 

It is also important to note that certain German 
authorities claim, with a certain reason, that allowance 
must be made for the number of seeds as well as the 
weight. Under these circumstances, it is proposed to 
multiply the germinating faculty of 100 seeds by the 
number of seeds contained in the unit weight and 
divide the result by 100. For example, if 100 seeds 
gave 125 sprouts and had a purity of 98.5 per cent., 
the old method would give 125 X 98.5 = 123.12 per 



246 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

cent, as the value of the seed. On the other hand, Dr. 
Sempotowski supposes five grams of seed contain 256 
seeds and that five grams were the unity of weight; 
then 123.12 X 256=315.18 per cent, as the actual value 
of the seed. Other calculations appear to show that 
what would have been in most cases considered 
acceptable by the old method, is in reality worthless 
by the new. 



APPENDIX. 



Notes Upon and List of European Beet-Seed 

Growers. 

The sugar beet, through long cultivation, becom- 
ing so pliable, so willing to meet the requirements 
of the environment in which it is placed, has 
resulted in the creation of hundreds of types and vari- 
eties. Many manufacturers have taken upon them- 
selves the production of their own seed; this plan for 
a period of years was popular, and even now there are 
thirty-five factories in Germany where the practice is 
continued. There must be connected with this an out- 
side market; for example, these factories just men- 
tioned have special arrangements with other factories 
to supply them with the beet seed they may require. 

In foregoing pages we have shown how much care 
there is needed in the selection and sub-selection. So 
many details cling together that its successful realiza- 
tion, by sugar manufacturers in general, is hardly 
practicable, as they have too frequently discovered after 
an interval of possibly five years. What is true regard- 
ing the manufacturer is equally true in cases of small 
dealers or growers, who attempt what they can only, in 
a measure, accomplish. They must have invested con- 
siderable capital, which yields no interest for a period 
of years; when first starting, furthermore, sufficient 
capital is needed to bridge over partial crop failure/ 
caused by climatic influences, or very low selling price, 
caused by a frequent overproduction. The laboratory 
appointments must be up to modern requirements and 

247 



248 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

standard, so as to create new types and varieties char- 
acteristic of one's own special work. The variations 
in market price are made evident by a single example. 
Jn Germany, in 1893, beet seed suddenly rose in price 
from 40 M. per 50 kilos (nine cents per pound) to 100 
M. or 22 cents per pound. 

The names given in the lists herewith are those 
with whom we have corresponded, and, in some cases, 
personally visited the farms, taking notes on the spot. 
We trust that the facts given will be of more than 
usual interest. 

• Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co. 

This well-known firm needs no introduction. We, 
nearly twenty years ago, were the first to give general 
publicity to the type known as Vilmorin's White 
Improved sugar beet, which is one of the richest, if 
not the richest, beets in the market. It is cultivated all 
over the world and almost everywhere with success, on 
account of its numerous qualities. We cannot do bet- 
ter than to give here an extract of Dr. Wiley's pam- 
phlet on the sugar beet, published by the United States 
Department of Agriculture in February, 1897. 

" This beet is the result of thirty-five years of 
methodic and persevering selection based upon the 
right principles. In regard to its preservation, it is 
recognized that it holds its sugar content better than 
any other variety. In those factories in which the 
Improved Vilmorin is manufactured in connection with 
other varieties, it is the custom to reserve this variety 
for the end of the season and to work up the less reli- 
able beets at an earlier date. It is also said to resist 
better than any other variety the unfavorable influence 
of certain characters of soil and of certain manures. 
In black soils, rich in organic matter, it gives great 
industrial results, while most other varieties of beets 
become watery or saline in excess. Excessive quanti- 



APPENDIX. 249 

ties of nitrogenous fertilizers, which are carefully 
excluded from ordinary varieties, can be applied with 
safety to the Improved Vilmorin, as a great number of 
experiments has shown that this can be done without 
serious deterioration in the quality of the sugar and 
with a considerable increase in weight. From thou- 
sands of analyses it has been established that the per- 
centage of sugar that can be obtained with this variety 
is about sixteen. Its average vield under favorable 
conditions can be stated to be from 12 to 16 tons 
per acre." 

We may add that late rains, so much to be dreaded 
in many countries, appear to have far less influence on 
the Vilmorin Improved than on most beets. On 
account of the extensive way in which Vilmorin's 
Improved is cultivated, the seed can be purchased 
at ten cents per pound. Thousands of analyses show 
that it can be depended upon to furnish 15 per cent, 
sugar and a yield of 15 tons of beets to the acre. The 
other varieties put out by this firm, such as French 
Very Rich, Red Top, Early Red Skin, Gray Top, etc., 
were very fully described in the author's work, ''The 
Sugar Beet," and no further mention of them need be 
made here. Some of these have precocity, while others 
are noted for their keeping qualities. M. Vilmorin 
thinks that beets require a deep loam, or even a clay 
soil, if not too deep. A clayey subsoil is very desirable 
if it be covered with at least 15 inches of surface soil. 
He emphasizes the fact that thorough drainage is 
imperatively demanded. It should be added, that the 
special agents for supplying Vilmorin's sugar-beet 
seeds to the sugar-beet industry in the United States, 
are Willett & Gray, 91 Wall street, New York. 

Klein- Wanzleben Sugar Factory Company. 

Some years ago, we visited the Wanzleben fac- 
tory, located at Wanzleben, and realized then the supe- 



250 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

riority of the sugar-beet seed there cultivated. Through 
long, careful observations and experiments, those in 
charge of the agricultural experiments of the locality 
were able to create a variety of beet that is connected 
by blood to nearly every type in existence, the char- 
acteristic advantage being the satisfactory yields 
obtained on any given area, combining also quality and 
suited to most soils. The early growers of this beet 
were Rabbetge and Giesecke, who were also proprie- 
tors of the Wanzleben sugar factory, which had a cap- 
ital of nearly $700,000. The factory still remains in 
the hands of Giesecke and a partner, but the seed or 
agricultural section is now a complete and separate 
company. 

A few words respecting the production of Klein- 
Wanzleben Original are not without interest. It was in 
reality created in i860, and the type 'during these 
thirty-seven years has been strictly adhered to. How- 
ever, there are constantly new varieties being created 
from force of circumstances. The physical selection 
plays a most important role, entirely independent of 
the chemical cold-water selection in the laboratory. All 
beets not possessing the typical characteristic must be 
thrown out. As mentioned a few lines above, there 
are new types which promise favorably, and these must 
be followed up with certain combinations of photo- 
graphs, to determine if some desirable new departure 
may not be found necessary. As soon as a degenera- 
tion or atavism manifests itself, the work in that special 
direction is at once abandoned. 

It is interesting to note that in some special cases 
a variety is obtained, from generation to generation, 
the amelioration of which shows a strong characteristic 
tendency. It is to just such a type that the Klein-Wan- 
zleben owes its value and existence. To keep up the 
purity of the blood, so to speak, every few years inter- 
breeding from the new standard varieties is found 
necessarv. 



APPENDIX. 251 

The Wanzleben Company claim that they are able, 
through their very multiple selections, variations from 
the Original, to meet all the requirements of soil, fiscal 
laws, etc., of countries with which they are in corre- 
spondence. If such scientific problems could be solved, 
the progress in that direction is far greater than we 
ever thought possible. When one considers that the 
fiscal laws of a country are constantly changing, to 
meet these conditions at a moment's notice is very 
creditable and an extraordinary achievement. It must 
not be forgotten that ten years is a comparatively short 
period in which to create a new type. The Wanzleben 
laboratory can make 7000 analyses per diem, besides 
which must be added the analyses for high testing 
beets, these acting as a tally on work previously done. 
In previous pages we have given several items show- 
ing, and, at the same time, highly recommending, the 
methods adopted. 

The Klein-Wanzleben Original demands a soil 
that has been previously worked. The best results are 
obtained on bottom lands, with sandy subsoil; manur- 
ing the autumn before planting, at time of sowing 
using sodic nitrate and superphosphate of lime; fre- 
quent use of the cultivator between rows, and one of 
the most important of all essentials is to keep beets 
near together in rows. Do not be in a hurry to har- 
vest this type of beet. American agents for this firm 
are Meyer & Raapke, of Omaha, Nebraska. 

M. Knauer, Grobers, Germany. 

With a few exceptions, no person in the entire 
Continental Europe has done more to improve the 
quality of beets than Knauer; the very name of beet 
seed and Knauer appear to be linked in some myste- 
rious way. The firm has gone from father to son. 
However, the son has introduced many important 
changes of the most deserving kind. The individual 



252 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

cultivation for beets was first introduced into Ger- 
many,, now forty years ago, by Ferdinand Knauer. 
The existing varieties may be considered now estab- 
lished on a very firm basis, for certainly time of more 
than twelve years is a most important factor. The 
Knauer seeds take three years to produce. Selection 
is made on the field from forms of types used as stand- 
ard of comparison ; these roots are kept in the soil and 
not analyzed until February or March the follow- 
ing year. 

It was Knauer who fought the Vilmorin theory 
respecting individual power of plants. It was he who 
pointed out in the original selection that the Mangold 
was one of the parents (this fact, we believe, was never 
entirely admitted by Vilmorin, but at the same time 
was never denied). Such being the case, Knauer con- 
cluded, some years ago, that he would make a new 
departure, using the Mangold as a basis. The results 
obtained were far more rapid than at first could have 
been thought possible; under which circumstances, 
after ten years, with the so-called refreshing of the 
blood five times, the new beet was finally placed upon 
the market. It was soon noticed that this newly 
created variety had a very high percentage and appar- 
ently matured early. The difficulties at first in introduc- 
ing this Mangold sugar beet were very like those M. 
Vilmorin had to contend with — the shape was not 
always the same, there was a want of uniformity, yet 
the texture of the epidermis was better than any of the 
existing types of beets used (this was considered a great 
advantage from a manufacturer's standpoint), the 
slicers could work them better and diffusion was 
more satisfactory. 

From long observation and determination, the 
form or shape has now been corrected, and it is only 
in very exceptional cases that any fault is found with 
the shape. A strange fact relating to this variety of 



APPEXDIX. . 253 

beet is, that the leaves apparently still retain the Alan- 
gold characteristic. This beet appears at present to be 
playing an important role. Besides the type just men- 
tioned, attention must be called to the Electorale 
and Imperiale. 

The latter appears to be suited to fertile soils; on 
the other hand, the Electorale renders great service on 
soils not so well suited for beets. These seeds 
have such well-known reputations that they need 
no introduction in these pages. The Mangold I appar- 
ently holds its name against all competition. The 
Knauer Wanzleben, or Improved, is also a very popu- 
lar variety. At the society of Central Agriculture, of 
Tabor, Bohemia, in a contest with sixteen other vari- 
eties, the Mangold gave nineteen tons to the acre; 
later, in 1895 and 1896, the experiments were again 
resumed and Knauers beets showed 16.6 per cent, 
sugar and 15.3 tons to the acre. The experiments con- 
ducted under the direction of Dr. Wiley at Washing- 
ton show 16.3 per cent, sugar and 15.2 tons to the 
acre. The American agent is H. Cordez of Evans- 
ville, Indiana, who grew beets in 1897 showing these 
percentages of sugar: 



Sept 24. 
Oct 10.. 



Mangold. 



Imperial. 



14.9 I 14.9 

16.5 15.9 



Electoral. 



14.3 
15.0 



J. W. Ustyanowicz, R. F Zmigrodzki & Co., 
Kieff, Russia. 

They have a very complete laboratory for selec- 
tion. The physical selection receives special atten- 
tion. The minimum weight for the Klein- Wanzleben 
type is 500 grams, while beets of the Vilmorin 
origin weigh 450 grams ; beets are arranged in glasses 
of 500, 600, 700, 800, etc., grams; each of these receives 
special attention. A special Behl press is used to 
extract the juices. About 5000 beets are examined 



254: SUGAR BEET SEED. 

daily; these analyses commence in January. There 
are 300,000 beets that receive the attention of the 
chemists in the laboratory. The planting of the sec- 
ond grade selected beets for the production of seed for 
the trade is done in rows ten inches apart, with spac- 
ing of four inches in the rows. The annual produc- 
tion is 600 tons. The characteristic of their Klein- 
Wanzleben types is abundant growth of light green 
leaves, slightly fringed on the outer border; the pulp 
and skin are very white. The Yilmorin type has 
darker green leaves, very little fringed on edges; the 
roots are rather long, skin hard, and at times has 
reddish spots. 

They claim that the richer the beet the greater the 
number of leaf rings, and corresponding sugar cells of 
the root. Hence, the reason why preference is always 
given in the selection to those roots having many cir- 
cles of small leaves. Production of beets from buds has 
also been given an extended trial. Fifty buds are taken 
from each mother; these are planted in sand in green- 
houses — not heated; when large enough they are trans- 
planted, and their subsequent weight frequently reaches 
five pounds. About thirty out of the fifty give seed 
which will yield beets as rich in sugar as the original 
mother. Grafting has had a fair trial and has met with 
success; the root upon which the portion is grafted is 
called a nurse, for it takes care of the portion attached 
far better than could the root from w T hich it was taken. 
The influence of the nurses is carefully watched and 
their buds are all removed. The seed from these 
growers has gained considerable reputation all over 
Europe. 

Florimond Desprez, Capelle, France. 

At one time, not many years ago, this firm held 
its own against all comers and promised a greater 
future than any special seed producer in the country, 



APPENDIX. 255 

having a very excellent laboratory and all that science 
could offer. Just what the conditions are now, we are 
not prepared to say. One fact is certain, very supe- 
rior seed has been created by the Desprez producers, 
and they were the first to establish a laboratory on a 
very extended scale. They claim to sell, annually, ioo 
tons of beet seed obtained directly from selected moth- 
ers. Their early maturing varieties attracted for a 
time some attention. They also attempted, with more 
or less success, to create varieties suitable for every 
soil and climate. But the conditions of environment 
in many countries render doubtful if the idea has much 
practical value. The very rich variety is known as 
Marque I; its object being to obtain the greatest pos- 
sible yield of sugar to the acre, soils of an average 
depth being needed for a continuous period of four 
years. In a very careful observation, the sugar per- 
centage was shown to be 16. There are also Marque 

1 bis and Marque II. The former demands a very 
deep, well w 7 orked soil and yields twenty tons to the 
acre; the latter twenty-five tons to the acre and 15 to 
10 per cent, sugar. On a soil of average fertility, 
maturity is possible in 150 days. Then follow Marques 

2 bis, 3, 3 bis, 4 and 4 bis, etc. Besides which there 
are many varieties intended for beet distilleries. Agents 
for the United States and Canada, J. F. Hem of Buf- 
falo, New York. 

A. Janasz, Dankow (par Mogielnica, Gov, Vars- 
ovie, Russia). 

This is a general seed grower, but who, however, 
has met with success in his sugar-beet-selecting 
methods. The laboratory is well equipped for the 
selection. They start from a variety they call Supra- 
Elite; from it are obtained the Elite. They furnish to 
the trade annually over 200,000 pounds of beet seed. 
In competitive tests made with several German and 



256 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

Austrian varieties, they came out first. The starting 
point in the Janasz selection is the creation of families 
having a common parent; on the field it is possible to 
determine the value of each family as regards yield and 
sugar percentage from these. In the autumn 60,000 to 
100,000 roots are selected; their analyses in the labor- 
atory are made the following February, they being 
kept in silos, with necks upward, in one layer, 
There then follows a second selection from exterior 
appearance of the roots; there is at least 40 per cent, 
of the total then thrown out. The Keil rasp is used 
for sampling. There is a slight modification of the 
Pellet cold-water method; to a given weight of pulp 
is added a known volume of water. Filtration and 
polarization follow in a regular way. It is claimed 
that most accurate results have been obtained. For 
mixing water of known volume with weighed pulp, 
special glasses are used. The classification of the beets 
for mothers does not end with their analysis, as they 
have to undergo another severe classification as to 
weight, shape, etc., followed by other analyses by alco- 
hol digestion. Not more than 5 to 8 per cent, of all 
beets examined come under the head of Class I, from 
which, in two years, are obtained mothers of special 
selection. About 70 per cent, of the beets examined in 
the laboratory form the Class II. 

The silos for these mothers of Class II consist of 
several layers of roots separated by a suitable layer of 
earth, in the middle of which is a layer of straw. These 
roots are planted at a distance of 60 c. m. (23.4 inches), 
the soil being constantly worked by cultivator and 
spade. The seeds and stalks, when harvested, are tied 
up in bundles and allowed to dry for two weeks on the 
field; the separation of seed from stalks is done by a 
steam threshing machine. The Janasz company do a 
very little advertising and most of the crop finds its way 
to Russian Poland. The work is known as C. C. or 



APPENDIX. 257 

A. I., also P.C. or A. I. 2. The latter are larger than the. 
former and give heavier yields. This seed is not sold, 
but is sown the following spring rather close together, 
so as to keep down the size, distance between rows 40 
c. m. (15.6 inches), and between beets in row, 10 
c. m. (3.9 inches). 

Gustav Jaensch & Co., Aschersleben, Germany. 

These growers are well known and make a spe- 
cialty of beet seed. Their varieties are the outcome of 
the Vilmorin and Klein- Wanzleben. The selection is 
made with considerable care, being based as usual on 
the shape, weight and percentage of sugar. From year 
to year, they claim that their methods undergo slight 
changes — the outcome of experience. 

Fouqier D'Herouel, Vaux-sous-Laon, France. 

This well-known seed producer, who has been 
before the public for twenty years, has only one variety 
to which his name is given. The claim is, that great 
stress is placed upon his methods of selection. The 
sugar percentage is from 15 to 18 and the yield about 
fifteen tons to the acre. It is claimed that there is a 
considerable demand for this seed in Belgium, where 
it competes under favorable circumstances with the 
well-known German imported seed. 

Zadislas Mayzel, Brzozowka.par Stopnica, Poland, 

Russia. 

A seed grower of considerable reputation, estab- 
lished in 1873; many farms are connected with the 
enterprise. The chemical laboratories connected with 
the selection are most active many months of the year. 
The cold-water method of selection is used, with some 
few modifications, which are considered most impor- 
tant. Each mother is analyzed twice, and it is only 
when both analyses show the beet to be very superior 

17 



258 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

that the root is kept for seeding purposes. This, com- 
bined with the genealogical tables of selected beets 
during a period of years, has allowed the production of 
the very superior seed as now furnished by this pro- 
ducer. About 1700 acres are annually devoted to seed 
growing, the farms being very far apart, one in the 
southern part of Russia. Climatic conditions in that 
section are said to be such that the beets resulting from 
such seed mature very early, and are very rich in sugar. 
The two types are the Viimorin Amelioree and Klein- 
Wanzleben. The first mentioned are known as mark 

0, very hard skin, short leaves, very fine. The mark 

1, the second mentioned, has in some respects the 
advantage of the first, while the skin is hard. It has 
entirely a different characteristic; the leaves remain 
adhering to the beet late in August, and even until 
early September. 

G. Schreiber & Sohn, Nordhausen, Germany. 

The main effort of these growers is to create a 
typical beet of high sugar percentage and satisfactory 
yield, and which will be possessed of certain staying 
qualities, which will be affected only to a limited 
extent by atavism. Schreiber & Son are sugar manu- 
facturers as well as growers; their laboratories for 
selection are at Heringen. The grandmothers should* 
in theory, weigh about one pound (400 to 500 grams) 
and contain from 17.6 to 18.5 per cent, sugar, but from 
a practical standpoint it is found that two pounds is a 
better weight and the sugar percentage limit 15.10 to 
17 — the final selection being made by the alcohol proc- 
ess. The number of polarizations has also reached a 
considerable sum, 46,000 of the Schreiber Original, 
49,700 Schreiber Klein-Wanzleben Amelioree and 
5000 of the Specialite Riche; the total by alcohol 
method, 28,800. These analyses showed that 22,000 
contained more than 17 per cent, sugar of the Original, 



APPEXDIX. 259 

known as S. O.; the others are types S. K. W. and S. S. 
respectively. In a practical way, some very satisfac- 
tory results have been obtained with the Schreiber 
seed, with yields of eighteen tons to the acre and 16 
per cent, sugar. Four thousand tons worked at the 
Heringen factory gave nearly 13 per cent, sugar of 
all grades. 

D. Blary-Mulliez, Templeuve, France. 

This producer has many customers among the 
sugar factories. A case is cited where a lot of ten tons 
proved most successful, the average sugar percentage 
was 14.7 and purity coefficient 85.4. For mother 
selection, preference is given to beets weighing above 
650 grams. All beets other than those testing 18 per 
cent, are thrown out; analyses commence in Novem- 
ber and finish in March; he claims that during 1897-98 
he will make 170,000 analyses. These mothers furnish 
seed from which beets are obtained that yield seed for 
the trade. The farms are seven miles from all others 
where beets are cultivated. He is the only producer 
in that district. Special stress is put on the fact that 
much care is given in the selection. American agent, 
Alfred Musy, 3713 Rhodes avenue, Chicago, 111. 

E. Kommer, Ouedlinburg, Germany. 

This producer has considerable determination in 
wishing to create a variety of beet that will give at 
the same time heavy yields and high sugar percentage. 
He claims that most of the very rich beets are want- 
ing in regularity of shape. The beet he has created 
is said to overcome some of these difficulties. The 
type Z is a Wanzleben Amelioree Blanche, suited to 
average soils; type E, same name of seed. These seeds 
have attained considerable success in the north of 
France, where in a contest of eighteen different grow- 
ers the Kommer came out best, with 17 per cent, sugar 



260 SUGAR BEET SEED. 

in the beet, purity coefficient 89.2 and a yield of fifteen 
tons to the acre. An interesting feature about this 
grower is, he is willing to have seed returned if germi- 
nation of product furnished is not up to the desired 
standard, providing the discovery is made within a 
reasonable period after sale. Some of these seeds have 
already been tried by the sugar companies of the 
United States. 

H. Hornung & Co. and Schlitte & Co. have 
grown sugar-beet seed for over sixty years. Their 
long experience as practical seedsmen, also as impor- 
tant manufacturers of sugar from beets, enabled them 
to produce unexcelled grades of seed. Their standard 
is a beet of great weight and highest sugar contents, 
assuring the greatest possible acreage yields. The 
unvaryingly excellent results achieved with their seeds 
have made them justly famous and sought for in all 
sugar growing countries. " They developed the 
famous Klein- Wanzlebener. they improved the French 
Vilmorin, and created the Non Plus Ultra variety, a 
cross of the two first named." The sole American 
agents for these seeds are H. A. Fischer & Co., of 173 
Front street, New York city. 

August Rolker & Sons, of 52 Dey street, New 
York city, are among the prominent American houses 
that import beet seed for both the trade and to sell 
direct to the consumer. They publish a circular giv- 
ing full particulars and directions for beet culture, as 
wtll as prices of beet seed. 



European Beet-Seed Growers. 



GERMANY. 



M. Knauer Grobers 

Gustav Jaensch & Co Aschersleben 

G. Schreiber & Sohn Nordhausen 

L. Kommer Quedlinburg, Saxony, Germany 

0. Schlieckmann Auleben 

Carl Schobbert & Co '.7.7.7. 7. Quedlinburg 

A. A. Baumeir Kl. Schierstedt 

Otto Licht Magdeburg 

£1 Braune Biendorf 

W. Rimpau Lagenstein 

Martin Grashoff Quedlinburg a Harz 

David Sachs • Quedlinburg 

Otto Breustedt Schladen am Harz 

C. A. F. Degering Quedlinburg 

Sam. Lor. Ziemann Quedlinburg 

Schhtte & Co Aumuhle bei Gorsback 

H. Hornung Frankenhausen 

Henry Mette Quedlinburg 

Gebruder Dippe Quedlinburg 

Klein- Wanzleben 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

Wohanka & Co Prague 

Heinrich Maria Jirku Birnhaum bei Austerlitz 

E. von Proskowetz Kwassitz (Moravia) 

1. Zapotil Vetristic Boztok (Bohemia) 

Proprietes Blahotitz Schlan (Bohemia) 

RUSSIA. 

J. W'. Ustyancnviez Kieff 

Ladislas Mayzel Brzozowka, par Stopnica, Poland 

Comte B. Tyszkiewicz, Pliskoff-Androuchofka, Poland 

Klein & Soukoffsky Bielany Beresovka, Podolie 

A. Janasz Dankow, par Mogielnica (Gov. Varsovie 

K. Buszczynski and M. Lazynaki..Niemiercze, Poland 

Louis WalkhofT Kalinovka (Gov. Podolie) 

A. Horowitz Macharinzy, Kasiatin (Podolie) 

Prop, du la Comtesse M. Branieka Olszana, Kiew 

Starorypinski Karabezejowka (Podolie) 

Proprietes du Comte I. Potocki Antonin 

I. Czarnomski Komarowka (Podolie) 

G. Gluski Wierzbica (Gov. Kielce) 

Prop, du la Comtesse Potocki ..Stazow (Gov. Radom) 
E. Zaleski & Co Gole (Gov. Varsovie) 

261 



262 SUGAR BEET SEED. 



FRANCE. 

Florimond Desprez, Capelle, near Templeuve (Nord) 
Fouquier d'Herouel Vaux-sous-Laon (Aisne) 

D. Blary-Mulliez Templeuve (Nord) 

Vve Bulteau-Desprez & Fils . .Font-a-Marcq (Nord) 

Vilmorin-Andrieux Co Paris 

Dransar & Beauvois Faumont (Nord) 

Degand-Nacfer Templeuve (Nord) 

Laude-Postel Hornaing (Nord) 

Ubald-Simon Orchies (Nord) 

C. Denaiff e Carignan (Ardennes) 

E. Carlier Orchies (Nord) 

Celestin Bonnet Coutiches (Nord) 

Gossart & Dhainaut Coutiches (Nord) 

Poutrain-Lotte Capelle 

C. Chuffart-Betaille Fretin (Nord) 

Laurent-Mouchon Orchies (Nord) 

Jules Lemaire-Dubois Nomain (Nord) 

E. Eloir & Co La Madeleine-lez-Lille (Nord) 

Simon Le Grand Vivaise (Aisne) 

Jules Legras Besny (Aisne) 

F. Demesmay Cysoing 

Deletrez-Dennetieres Fils Orchies (Nord) 

A. Wallez Valenciennes (Nord) 

F. Geerts-Collette Camphin-en-Pevele( Nord) 

Wagnies-Le Grand Establishments 

L. & G. Begard La Neuville (Nord) 

Carbon-Mocq Bersee (Nord) 

Vitrant & Cannonne Cambrai 

L. Guislain Nomain 

Association Deutsch Paris 

Carbon-Menet Genech 

Ch. Allart Arras (Pas-de-Calais) 

J. Ballet Capelle (Nord) 

F. Haye Fortez, near Seboncourt (Aisne) 

BELGIUM. 
H. Malcorps Alleur, near Ana 



NDEX. 



Annual beets, 
Atavism of beets, 
Beets, Analyses, 
Annual, 
Best shape of, 
Best soil for, 



Page 
38-43 
39 
110 
38 
64 
26 
Botanical description of, 7 
Characteristic of rich, 60 
Composition of, 71 

Cultivation for, 132 

Density of, 72-74 

Distance apart, 194-195 

Early varieties of, 2 

First experiments with, 2 
From leaves and skin, 217 
From vertical slices, 220 

History of sugar, 1 

Hybrids, preventing, 212 

Importance of improving, 5 
Importance of smooth, 54-56 
Increase of saccharine mat- 
ter in, 5 
Juice density of, 74-75 
Main types of, 3 
Method of crossing, 49 
Seed mixing of, 6 
Beet, poor shape, 65-66 
Producing uniform, 28-30 
Races and types of, 44-52 
Sampling mothers, 79 
Seed, price of, 2 
Selecting for seed, 52-68 
Selecting mothers, 35-53-69 
Signs of quality, 62-68 
Size of mother, 57-59 
Standards for selection, 47-48 
Tendency to retrograde, 46 
Time of maturity, 31 
Transformation of types, 4 
Transplanting young, 192 
Varieties best adapted to 
certain soils, 30 
Varieties of, how named, 28 
Buds, beet seed from, 212-217 
Embryo, fertilization of, 12-15 
Europe, seed production in, 

237 

Fertilizers for mothers, 126 

On American seed farms, 130 

Flower, Description of parts, 

9-11 
Importance of in fertiliza- 
tion, 8 
Pollen, analyses of, 10 
France, seed production in, 

237-245 



Page 

German selecting laboratory 

113 
Germinators, for testing seed, 

174-183 
Hanriot's sampling machine, 

99 
Insects, which attack moth- 
ers, 142-143 
Juice, Analyses in the Legras 
laboratory, 119 
Density of, 150 
Method of analyzing, 81-83 
Klein-Wanzleben family, 47 
Knauer, 236 
Laboratory, Apparatus for, 

110-113 
German selecting, 113 

Mother selecting, 103 

Leaves indicate richness, 59-62 
Legras, 56, 236 

Moisture affecting germinat- 
ing power of seed, 172 
Amount necessary for ger- 
mination, 198-199 
Moisture of seed, 164-165 
Mother beets, selecting, 35-53 
Mothers, Fertilizers for, 126 
Chemical changes in, 149-152 
Cost of harvesting, 138 
Cultivating, 133-137 
Harvesting, 138 
History of selecting, 69 
Importance of uniformity 
in, 212 
Insects which attack, 142-143 
Planting, 133 
Polariscope for selecting of, 

115 
Preparing soil for, 133 

Sach's method of testing, 

104 

Sampling, 79 

Seed from very small, 209 

Selecting laboratory, 103 

Signs of maturity, 138 

Silos for, 145-149 

Size of, 57-59 

Sowing seed for, 131 

Yield of, 142 

Planting, Depth of, 206 

Polariscope, For selection of 

mothers, 115 

Tests with, 2, 84 

Polarization continuous, 118 

Poliakowsky method, 90 

Pollen, Analyses of, 10 



263 



2G4 



INDEX. 



Page 

Pulp rasps, 91 

Pulp, Weighing- of, 93 

Rasps, Pulp, 91 

Roots, Number per acre, 132 

Sach's method of testing 

mothers, 104 

Sampling apparatus, 105 

Sampling, Different methods 

of, 96 

How the work is done, 109 

Seed, Actual weight of, 157 

Always plant the best, 153 

American experiments in 

producing, 222-236 

American vs. Foreign, 230 

Amount per acre, 191 

Appearance of, 22 

Best soil for, 122-125 

Botanical examination of, 17 

By the grafting method, 216 

Chemical composition of, 

22-25 
Chemical examination of, 

18-19 
Color and order of, 162 

Composition of, 151 

Cost of producing in Amer- 
ica, 234 
Depth of covering, 132 
Depth of planting, 206 
Detailed description of, 16 
Development of, 12-15 
Distance of planting, 132 
Embryo, how fertilized, 

12-15 
Field methods of testing, 

231 

From annual beets, 38-43 

From buds, 212-217 

From small mothers, 209 

From vertical slices, 220 

Germination in the soil. 197 

Germination of, 203-206 

Germinating power affected 

by heat, 170-171 

Germinating power affected 

by moisture, 171-172 

Germinating power of, 170 

Germinators, 174-183 

Great variation in, 32-33 

Grown under government 

supervision, 221 

Growers, Information about. 

247-262 

Growing tests by Dr. Wiley, 

223-224 

Hand-sowing best, 131 

Home grown, 221-222 



Page 
How to produce good, 37 
Importance of good, 27 

Improvement by selection, 

33 
Impurities in, 163-164 

Influence of size, 154 

Laws in European coun- 
tries, 240 
Large the best, 154-155 
Maturity of, 21 
Microscopical examination 
of, 18 
Moisture of, 164-165 
Number to be tested, 182-183 
Preliminary sprouting 1898, 

189 
Preparation for sowing, 
184-197 
Producing superior, 208 

Production in Europe, 237 
Production in France, 
237-245 
Production in Utah, 227-230 
Sampling, 53, 15:5-169 

Selection by chemical analy- 
ses, 161-162 
Selecting laboratory, 23?) 
Shelling, 143-144 
Size of, _ 245 
Soaking before sowing,. 185 
Sowing for mothers, 131 
Tests in California, 230 
Time for development, 145 
Treating with chemicals, 
185-190 
Utilize old beet, 238-239 
Varieties of, 47, 56, 236 
When ripe, 138 
When to sow, 190 
Yield of, j 145 
Seed drills, 193 
Silos for mothers, 145-149 
Soil, Advantages of uniform, 

124-125 

Best for beets, 26 

Best for seed, 122-125 

Relations to fertilizers, 129 

Sugar, Determination of, 

26, 85, 90, 78, 121 

Estimation of, 77, 84 

Increase in, 5 

Tests by experiment stations. 

225-226 

Vilmorin, 236 

Wanzleben. 236 

Wiley. Dr., Seed growing tests 

by, 223-224 



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